https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=130.58.65.10&feedformat=atomDiversifying Economic Quality: A Wiki for Instructors and Departments - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T06:28:27ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.31.8https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Baytestpage&diff=2387Baytestpage2011-12-12T19:39:23Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>let's try this<br />
and this</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=2279Main Page2011-11-10T16:08:44Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
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<div><center><span style="color:darkmagenta; font-family:serif; font-style:roman; font-size:20pt; font-weight:normal">'''div'''<span style="color:black">ersifying </span>'''e'''<span style="color:black">conomic </span>'''q'''<span style="color:black">uality: a wiki for instructors and departments</span><br />
</span></center><br />
<br />
__NOTOC__<br />
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="31%" valign="top" style="background:#f5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Purpose</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:2px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
The purpose of this wiki is to promote best teaching practices in economics, particularly practices that encourage women, students of color, and members of other underrepresented groups to continue their study of economics. Here, economics faculty can both disseminate and discover prescriptions for improving our teaching and the inclusiveness of our discipline. <br />
<br />
<br />
The teaching strategies offered here are presented alongside evidence of their effectiveness and practical suggestions for implementation. Please spend time browsing the site; many of the strategies are effective and straightforward to incorporate. Our choices as instructors and gatekeepers affect student participation and achievement. <br />
[[File:Quicktips.png|link=Quick tips|right]] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The wiki also provides data describing patterns of participation in our profession and opportunities for thoughtful reflection on why inclusion and diversity are important to the future of economic theory and policymaking.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''How You Can Help'''<br />
<br />
*[[Read]] these pages.<br />
*[[Share]] your research.<br />
*[[Post]] information and statistics to new or existing pages of the wiki.<br />
*Contribute questions and comments to the [[discussion]] of pages.<br />
*Provide general [[feedback]]. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
<br />
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |<br />
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|width="69%" valign="top" style="background:#f5faff; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Content Areas</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:2px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven strategies for the classroom</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Use [[cooperative learning]].<br />
<br />
* Avoid [[stereotype threat]].<br />
<br />
* Consider the impact of [[wait time]] during classroom activities.<br />
<br />
* Employ [[technology]] wisely.<br />
<br />
* Promote [[inclusive communication]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven strategies...|* Use [[inquiry-based learning]].<br />
<br />
* Incorporate [[service learning]].}}<br />
<br/><br />
<br/><br />
</div><br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven policies for departments</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Offer a course on Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in Economics or on [[heterodox theories of economics]].<br />
<br />
* Encourage peer and faculty [[mentoring]].<br />
<br />
* Utilize [[summer bridge programs]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven policies...|* [[Alter the introductory textbooks]].<br />
<br />
* [[Recruit and retain a diverse faculty]].<br />
<br />
* [[Actively recruit]] students who may be underprepared or unsure.}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |<br />
<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#f5f5f5; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven practices for instructors</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Provide opportunities for [[involvement with research]] early on.<br />
<br />
* Reflect on and learn more about [[personal prejudices and values]].<br />
<br />
* Emphasize that [[biology is not destiny]].<br />
<br />
* [[Vary your assessments and retrieval exercises.]]<br />
<br />
* Provide opportunities to [[get to know students personally]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven practices...|* Incorporate [[heterodox theories of economics]] into curricula.<br />
<br />
* Share these [[study tips]].<br />
<br />
* Be aware of a third theory of [[discrimination]].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br><br />
[[File:Class Presentation Image1.jpeg|center]]<br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:bottom; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Additional Content</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:1px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
</div><br />
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Who's missing?</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:1px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* [[participation data|Participation data]]<br />
* [[Nobel Laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Laureates]]<br />
</div><br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Does it matter?</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:1px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* [[consequences|Consequences]]<br />
* [[contributions to economics|Contributions]]<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
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<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#f5f5f5; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
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|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:1px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* [[useful links|Useful links]]<br />
* [[other readings|Other suggested reading]]<br />
* [[Upcoming Events|Upcoming events]]<br />
* [[contributors|Contributors]]<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:bottom; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:140%; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:center; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><br />
Find us on [http://www.linkedin.com LinkedIn] - Like us on [http://www.facebook.com/pages/diveq/262734863772281?sk=wall Facebook]</h2></div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Les_testing&diff=2155Les testing2011-11-04T17:38:00Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>This is a test page created by an unauthenticated user. An unauthenticated edit.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Les_testing&diff=2127Les testing2011-11-01T14:25:49Z<p>130.58.65.10: Created page with "This is a test page created by an unauthenticated user."</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a test page created by an unauthenticated user.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Talk:Biology_is_not_destiny&diff=1910Talk:Biology is not destiny2011-10-23T13:49:09Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>comments:<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Name''': Angela<br />
<br />
'''Rating''': 8<br />
<br />
<br />
''' [note from ab: Target to teacher as well as to student. Explain that race and gender are social constructions. <br />
ALSO challenge the notion that economic intuition is inborn. It can be taught/learned/acquired--why else are we here?<br />
ALSO see heterodox page cite: "One last interesting article I will mention is Cecilia Conrad’s critique of race as a category in econometric OLS regression techniques. Here, the assumption that race is a fixed variable from sample to sample does not capture the inherent fluidity of this socially constructed category that is reinvented time and time again. Race is an unstable category. Lack of attention to historical understandings of race can lead to false conclusions in studies on, say, longitudinal differences in wage. Conrad offers some clues as to how a more fluid representation of race can be incorporated into econometric models (endogenous variables with simultaneous equations) but does not suggest any kind of firm answer."]'''</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Biology_is_not_destiny&diff=1909Biology is not destiny2011-10-23T13:48:40Z<p>130.58.65.10: /* Emphasize that biology is not destiny. */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Emphasize that biology is not destiny.==<br />
<br />
"Biology is not destiny" refers to the idea that minority and female students are often stuck in this mindset that intelligence is inherent and it cannot be expanded. The idea that certain individuals are biologically less capable of contributing to an academic field stems from the dominant group within that field, in other words race and gender in academia, as well as in society, are entities that are constructed. Societal beliefs concerning intelligence and a learning environment are key issues that make underrepresented students feel competent in various academic fields. In the case of Economics, a Caucasian male dominated field, a perception of the field has been created, which has discouraged underrepresented students from the field. <br />
<br />
<br />
In one finding, when teachers and instructors told female students that their intelligence could grow and expand with learning and experience, the students performed better on math tests and were more optimistic about their futures in the mathematics field. By emphasizing that intelligence is nurture, not nature (especially in male-dominant fields), professors created an inclusive classroom environment where female students felt more confident about their skills and abilities. <br />
<br />
<br />
At Stanford University, Carol Dweck, a social and developmental psychologist, has been conducting research on the idea of motivation for the past 40 years. She argues that there are two kinds of mindset when it comes to academic motivation. "A 'growth mindset' (viewing intelligence as a changeable, malleable attribute that can be developed through effort) as opposed to a 'fixed mindset' (viewing intelligence as an inborn, uncontrollable trait) is likely to lead to greater persistence in the face of adversity and ultimately success in any realm."<br />
<br />
<br />
Dweck finds that fixed mindsets among students in junior high and college plays a role in creating a gender gap with boys performing well in math and science and growth mindsets among students create no sort of gender gap in academic performance. Dweck and her colleges followed several hundred women at a top-tier university in a one semester calculus course and found that growth mindsets also promotes persistence for students. Female students in classrooms where growth mindsets are promoted are more likely to continue taking classes in that field and were less susceptible to negative gender stereotypes about intelligence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Faculty in tertiary education should stress to female students that academic skills and abilities can be acquired through hard work and biology does not determine intelligence. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Citation''': Dweck, C. (2008). ''Mindsets and math/science achievement.'' New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, Institute for Advanced Study, Commission on Mathematics and Science Education ''as cited in'' Hill et al. (2010). "Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics". American Association of University Women.<br />
<br />
'''Name''': Angela<br />
<br />
'''Rating''': 8<br />
<br />
<br />
''' [note from ab: Target to teacher as well as to student. Explain that race and gender are social constructions. <br />
ALSO challenge the notion that economic intuition is inborn. It can be taught/learned/acquired--why else are we here?<br />
ALSO see heterodox page cite: "One last interesting article I will mention is Cecilia Conrad’s critique of race as a category in econometric OLS regression techniques. Here, the assumption that race is a fixed variable from sample to sample does not capture the inherent fluidity of this socially constructed category that is reinvented time and time again. Race is an unstable category. Lack of attention to historical understandings of race can lead to false conclusions in studies on, say, longitudinal differences in wage. Conrad offers some clues as to how a more fluid representation of race can be incorporated into econometric models (endogenous variables with simultaneous equations) but does not suggest any kind of firm answer."]'''</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=1902Main Page2011-10-21T19:04:42Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div><center><span style="color:darkmagenta; font-family:serif; font-style:roman; font-size:25pt; font-weight:normal">'''div'''<span style="color:black">ersifying </span>'''e'''<span style="color:black">conomic </span>'''q'''<span style="color:black">uality: a wiki for instructors and departments</span><br />
</span></center><br />
<br />
__NOTOC__<br />
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="33%" valign="top" style="background:#f5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Purpose</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:2px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
The purpose of this wiki is to promote best teaching practices in economics, particularly practices that encourage women, students of color, and members of other underrepresented groups to continue their study of economics. Here, economics faculty can both disseminate and discover prescriptions for improving our teaching and the inclusiveness of our discipline. <br />
<br />
<br />
The teaching strategies offered here are presented alongside evidence of their effectiveness and practical suggestions for implementation. Please spend time browsing the site; many of the strategies are effective and straightforward to incorporate. Our choices as instructors and gatekeepers affect student participation and achievement. <br />
<br />
<br />
The wiki also provides data describing patterns of participation in our profession and opportunities for thoughtful reflection on why inclusion and diversity are important to the future of economic theory and policymaking.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''How You Can Help'''<br />
<br />
*[[Read]] these pages.<br />
*[[Share]] your research.<br />
*[[Post]] information and statistics to new or existing pages of the wiki.<br />
*Contribute questions and comments to the [[discussion]] of pages.<br />
*Provide general [[feedback]]. <br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
<br />
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |<br />
<br />
|width="67%" valign="top" style="background:#f5faff; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Content Areas</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:2px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven strategies for the classroom</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Use [[cooperative learning]].<br />
<br />
* Avoid [[stereotype threat]].<br />
<br />
* Consider the impact of [[wait time]] during classroom activities.<br />
<br />
* Employ [[technology]] wisely.<br />
<br />
* Promote [[inclusive communication]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven strategies...|* Use [[inquiry-based learning]].<br />
<br />
* Incorporate [[service learning]].}}<br />
<br/><br />
<br/><br />
<br/><br />
</div><br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven policies for departments</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Offer a course on Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in Economics or on [[heterodox theories of economics]].<br />
<br />
* Encourage peer and faculty [[mentoring]].<br />
<br />
* Utilize [[summer bridge programs]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven policies...|* [[Alter the introductory textbooks]].<br />
<br />
* [[Recruit and retain a diverse faculty]].<br />
<br />
* [[Actively recruit]] students who may be underprepared or unsure.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |<br />
<br />
|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#f5f5f5; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven practices for instructors</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Provide opportunities for [[involvement with research]] early on.<br />
<br />
* Reflect on and learn more about [[personal prejudices and values]].<br />
<br />
* Emphasize that [[biology is not destiny]].<br />
<br />
* [[Vary your assessments and retrieval exercises.]]<br />
<br />
* Provide opportunities to [[get to know students personally]].<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven practices...|* Incorporate [[heterodox theories of economics]] into curricula.<br />
<br />
* Share these [[study tips]].<br />
<br />
* Be aware of a third theory of [[discrimination]].<br />
<br />
* Realize that our concept of efficiency, [[Pareto efficiency]], reinforces the status quo. }}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Class Presentation Image1.jpeg|center]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
|}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=1901Main Page2011-10-21T19:04:08Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div><center><span style="color:darkmagenta; font-family:serif; font-style:roman; font-size:25pt; font-weight:normal">'''div'''<span style="color:black">ersifying </span>'''e'''<span style="color:black">conomic </span>'''q'''<span style="color:black">uality: a wiki for instructors and departments</span><br />
</span></center><br />
<br />
__NOTOC__<br />
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=1<br />
|width="33%" valign="top" style="background:#f5fffa; border:1px solid #cef2e0;"|<br />
{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#dcdcdc; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Purpose</h2><br />
|-<br />
|style="color:#000;"|<br />
<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:2px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
The purpose of this wiki is to promote best teaching practices in economics, particularly practices that encourage women, students of color, and members of other underrepresented groups to continue their study of economics. Here, economics faculty can both disseminate and discover prescriptions for improving our teaching and the inclusiveness of our discipline. <br />
<br />
<br />
The teaching strategies offered here are presented alongside evidence of their effectiveness and practical suggestions for implementation. Please spend time browsing the site; many of the strategies are effective and straightforward to incorporate. Our choices as instructors and gatekeepers affect student participation and achievement. <br />
<br />
<br />
The wiki also provides data describing patterns of participation in our profession and opportunities for thoughtful reflection on why inclusion and diversity are important to the future of economic theory and policymaking.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''How You Can Help'''<br />
<br />
*[[Read]] these pages.<br />
*[[Share]] your research.<br />
*[[Post]] information and statistics to new or existing pages of the wiki.<br />
*Contribute questions and comments to the [[discussion]] of pages.<br />
*Provide general [[feedback]]. <br />
</div><br />
|}<br />
<br />
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |<br />
<br />
|width="67%" valign="top" style="background:#f5faff; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
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! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven strategies for the classroom</h2><br />
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* Use [[cooperative learning]].<br />
<br />
* Avoid [[stereotype threat]].<br />
<br />
* Consider the impact of [[wait time]] during classroom activities.<br />
<br />
* Employ [[technology]] wisely.<br />
<br />
* Promote [[inclusive communication]].<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven strategies...|* Use [[inquiry-based learning]].<br />
<br />
* Incorporate [[service learning]].}}<br />
<br/><br />
<br/><br />
<br/><br />
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{| id="mp-left" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
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|-<br />
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<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Offer a course on Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in Economics or on [[heterodox theories of economics]].<br />
<br />
* Encourage peer and faculty [[mentoring]].<br />
<br />
* Utilize [[summer bridge programs]].<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven policies...|* [[Alter the introductory textbooks]].<br />
<br />
* [[Recruit and retain a diverse faculty]].<br />
<br />
* [[Actively recruit]] students who may be underprepared or unsure.}}<br />
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|width="50%" valign="top" style="background:#f5f5f5; border:1px solid #cedff2;"|<br />
{| id="mp-right" style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"<br />
! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#ffd700; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">Proven practices for instructors</h2><br />
|-<br />
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<div style="border:1px solid #f5fafe; margin:6px; padding:1px; font-size:120%;"><br />
* Provide opportunities for [[involvement with research]] early on.<br />
<br />
* Reflect on and learn more about [[personal prejudices and values]].<br />
<br />
* Emphasize that [[biology is not destiny]].<br />
<br />
* [[Vary your assessments and retrieval exercises.]]<br />
<br />
* Provide opportunities to [[get to know students personally]].<br />
<br />
{{hidden|More proven practices...|* Incorporate [[heterodox theories of economics]] into curricula.<br />
<br />
* Share these [[study tips]].<br />
<br />
* Be aware of a third theory of [[discrimination]].<br />
<br />
* Realize that our concept of efficiency, [[Pareto efficiency]], reinforces the status quo. }}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Class Presentation Image1.jpeg|center]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
|}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Recruit_and_retain_a_diverse_faculty&diff=1889Recruit and retain a diverse faculty2011-10-21T02:12:22Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
A number of studies have pointed to non-diverse economics department faculty as a deterrent for women and racial minorities to pursue further studies in economics. The absence of women and racial minorities from economics department faculty presents a message that students belonging to underrepresented groups are not welcome, and may not be able to break into the field. The presence of a diverse faculty creates a more comfortable environment for underrepresented students, and typically results in increased participation rates by these students. A diverse faculty is not only important in terms of role modeling for a diverse student body, but also for presenting a different perspective in the economics classroom. <br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|Sources|<br />
Faculty Role Models and Diversifying the Gender and Racial Mix of Undergraduate Economics Majors<br />
Anthony V. Catanese<br />
The Journal of Economic Education<br />
Vol. 22, No. 3, Special Issue on Undergraduate Economic Education (Summer, 1991), pp. 276-284<br />
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.<br />
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1183114}}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Talk:Recruit_and_retain_a_diverse_faculty&diff=1888Talk:Recruit and retain a diverse faculty2011-10-21T02:11:20Z<p>130.58.65.10: Created page with "By successfully recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty, one automatically creates a positive effect on the recruitment and retention of a diverse student body. Charmaine P. C..."</p>
<hr />
<div>By successfully recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty, one automatically creates a positive effect on the recruitment and retention of a diverse student body. Charmaine P. Clowney, the Director of Diversity of the PA State System of Higher Education, says that 96% of undergraduate and graduate students of color say that a professor of color has positively impacted their education. Not only was there an impact for students of color, but 83% of caucasians undergraduate and graduate students said that a professor of color had positively impacted their education. There is a direct link between a diverse faculty and a diverse student body. Some of the approaches the Clowney emphasizes is being proactive, bringing the law into the case for a diverse faculty, and creating effective search committees that will find the best candidates.<br />
<br />
Clowney, Charmaine. (Producer). Best practices in recruiting and retaining diverse faculty. [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.teachpsych.org/diversity/facultyrecruit.php<br />
<br />
http://www.teachpsych.org<br />
<br />
John Oh<br />
<br />
Overall Rating: 7</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Recruit_and_retain_a_diverse_faculty&diff=1887Recruit and retain a diverse faculty2011-10-21T02:11:14Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>By successfully recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty, one automatically creates a positive effect on the recruitment and retention of a diverse student body. Charmaine P. Clowney, the Director of Diversity of the PA State System of Higher Education, says that 96% of undergraduate and graduate students of color say that a professor of color has positively impacted their education. Not only was there an impact for students of color, but 83% of caucasians undergraduate and graduate students said that a professor of color had positively impacted their education. There is a direct link between a diverse faculty and a diverse student body. Some of the approaches the Clowney emphasizes is being proactive, bringing the law into the case for a diverse faculty, and creating effective search committees that will find the best candidates.<br />
<br />
Clowney, Charmaine. (Producer). Best practices in recruiting and retaining diverse faculty. [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.teachpsych.org/diversity/facultyrecruit.php<br />
<br />
http://www.teachpsych.org<br />
<br />
John Oh<br />
<br />
Overall Rating: 7<br />
<br />
{{hidden|Sources|<br />
Faculty Role Models and Diversifying the Gender and Racial Mix of Undergraduate Economics Majors<br />
Anthony V. Catanese<br />
The Journal of Economic Education<br />
Vol. 22, No. 3, Special Issue on Undergraduate Economic Education (Summer, 1991), pp. 276-284<br />
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.<br />
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1183114}}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Actively_recruit&diff=1886Actively recruit2011-10-21T01:28:22Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div> <br />
Economics departments can actively recruit underrepresented students into the field of economics by implementing departmental strategies focused on [[introductory economics courses]]. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
A [http://www.economics-finance.org/jefe/econ/JEFE%202009-034%20Cloutierfinalpaper.pdf study] conducted by Norma R. Cloutier and Dennis A. Kaufman, both Professors of Economics as the University of Wisconsin-Parkside, demonstrated that by “(1) aggressively marketing the economics degree, and (2) allowing high achieving students to waive the macroeconomics principles requirements for an economics degree” a higher percentage of women decided to pursue an economics major. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Their study demonstrated that the students that decided to waive the macroeconomics principles class were not disadvantaged for upper level courses, and that after its implementation and heavy marketing in 1991, the gender balance for the economics degree improved significantly. “In the period 1975-1994, 26.3% of economics graduates were female, but in the period 1995-2007 the percentage female among economics graduates increased to 40.5%.” <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|Sources|<br />
<br />
Whitten et al. (2007). "What works for women in undergraduate physics and what can we learn from women’s colleges." Journal of <br />
Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 13(1), 37–76. ''as cited in'' Hill et al. (2010). "Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics". American Association of University Women.<br />
<br />
http://www.economics-finance.org/jefe/econ/JEFE%202009-034%20Cloutierfinalpaper.pdf}}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Actively_recruit&diff=1885Actively recruit2011-10-21T01:28:10Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div> <br />
Economics departments can actively recruit underrepresented students into the field of economics by implementing departmental strategies focused on [[introductory economics courses]]. <br />
<br />
A [http://www.economics-finance.org/jefe/econ/JEFE%202009-034%20Cloutierfinalpaper.pdf study] conducted by Norma R. Cloutier and Dennis A. Kaufman, both Professors of Economics as the University of Wisconsin-Parkside, demonstrated that by “(1) aggressively marketing the economics degree, and (2) allowing high achieving students to waive the macroeconomics principles requirements for an economics degree” a higher percentage of women decided to pursue an economics major. <br />
<br />
Their study demonstrated that the students that decided to waive the macroeconomics principles class were not disadvantaged for upper level courses, and that after its implementation and heavy marketing in 1991, the gender balance for the economics degree improved significantly. “In the period 1975-1994, 26.3% of economics graduates were female, but in the period 1995-2007 the percentage female among economics graduates increased to 40.5%.” <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{hidden|Sources|<br />
<br />
Whitten et al. (2007). "What works for women in undergraduate physics and what can we learn from women’s colleges." Journal of <br />
Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 13(1), 37–76. ''as cited in'' Hill et al. (2010). "Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics". American Association of University Women.<br />
<br />
http://www.economics-finance.org/jefe/econ/JEFE%202009-034%20Cloutierfinalpaper.pdf}}</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1377Discrimination2011-07-18T20:34:08Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate behavior (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom. The institutionalized inequalities tend to work against, rather than for, members of historically disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1376Discrimination2011-07-18T20:27:22Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate behavior (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom. These structures tend to work against, rather than for, members of historically disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1375Discrimination2011-07-18T20:27:07Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate behavior (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom.. These structures tend to work against, rather than for, members of historically disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1374Discrimination2011-07-18T20:25:20Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate behavior (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom, and these structures tend to work against, rather than for, members of disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1373Discrimination2011-07-18T20:24:53Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups due to the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom, and these structures tend to work against, rather than for, members of disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Heterodox_theories_of_economics&diff=1372Heterodox theories of economics2011-07-18T20:14:10Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Incorporate heterodox theories of economics into curricula.==<br />
<br />
The term “heterodox” refers to any idea that critiques or stands in contrast to conventional, generally-accepted canon – that is, the status quo. As such, heterodox views are always unorthodox, frequently interdisciplinary, and, more often than not, dissident. Heterodox theories of economics can depart from mainstream or neoclassical economics in a multitude of ways. Most take issue with narrow focus of economics today, which is primarily concerned with the rational agent and the distribution of material wealth. Heterodox theories seek to redefine and expand classical economics, often criticizing and deconstructing the key dogmatic assumptions and techniques underlying “the invisible hand”. <br />
<br />
Despite the diversity of “outside views” on economics, heterodox frameworks are very rarely taught at the university level. What follows is a brief review of feminist, queer theory, and post-colonial perspectives on economics. These reviews rely heavily on one or two central texts in the field and are meant as suggestions for instructors who would like to make course content more representative and inclusive of less well-known but equally valid approaches to economics. <br />
<br />
==Feminist Theory==<br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Ferber and Nelson’s 1992 <u>Beyond Economic Man</u> was the first text of its kind to put forth a very radical notion -- that the ideal of impartiality in economic study is itself androcentric. For many, it is at first difficult to acknowledge that objectivity is a cultural construct, let alone a masculine one. The feminist critique of this scientific methodology seems like an outside interests intruding and undercutting the pristine, neutral study of natural phenomena. What all the essays within this anthology make immediately and overwhelmingly clear, however, is that economics as a field already has inherent “inside interests”. Historically, economics was constructed by men in the image of man. <u>Beyond</u> asserts that not only is the field and its objects of inquiry intrinsically male-skewed as a result of this history, but also that the “objective” practice, methodology, and models of economics are themselves partial and, frequently, incomplete. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Objectivity is often heralded as the greatest strength within the scientific practice of economics. Yet gender (or lack of it) is deeply embedded within this practice. This last idea is rarely recognized or acknowledged; in fact, men and women inside and outside the field have become accustomed to regarding subjective, emotional, and/or holistic approaches to the study of economics – characteristics that are largely ascribed as “feminine” – as inferior. For this reason, the simple inclusion of women in economics alone is not sufficient to shift the androcentric paradigms of economic practice. The preface to the collection provides a great introduction to this sort of basic feminist critique of science. Ferber and Nelson briefly document the prevalent gender imbalance in economics (in terms of history, participation, etc) and then move on to describe the spectrum of feminist perspectives on the issue. In so doing, they explain complex concepts like [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism essentialism] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_epistemology feminist epistemology] in a very direct and easy-to-understand way. The intro carefully builds up to the notion that objectivity or the separation from the object of study is a loaded, cultural construct. Both editors – indeed, all of the writers included in the collection – repeatedly and loudly disclaim that these essays are not a dismissal of objectivity but rather a call for inclusion of a wide range of economic practices. This characteristic of the book is itself a commentary on how firmly entrenched and highly pedestaled objectivity is. Regardless, the book remains a radical critique not only of the way economic tools are being applied, but of the tools themselves. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">The first few essays tackle the basic models of neoclassical economics; the field, it seems, has come to focus on a very narrow and biased definition of exchange -- how economic man goes about allocating scarce resources. Implicit within this definition is the idea that Nature (always a her) is a withholding entity to be conquered by economic man. Furthermore, most neoclassical models assume rational choice. Studying how individuals respond to their environments inherently assumes a degree of empowerment, than an individual can respond, a prerequisite that could not be fulfilled by women around the world at the time theories of rational choice were being developed. Would women behave in the same selfish, self-interested manner as economic man? Paula England’s piece, “The Separative Self: Androcentric Bias in Neoclassical Assumptions,” exposes the masculine (and Western nature) of this independent decision making in a way that could be informative to students of economics. She dissects three main assumptions of the field in a considered and technical way that highlights how economics can sweep aside issues of gendered difference. England makes the case for centering economic study on a more connected, empathetic self. <u>Beyond</u> thus expresses dissatisfaction with the field but not in lieu of searching for a solution to the problems. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Donald McCloskey’s essay, “Some Consequences of a Conjective Economics,” is similarly rife with examples of how one can change the endemic dismissal of undetached inquiry. He introduces the idea of a “conjective economics”, which is (roughly) an economics created for the community using diverse methods of inquiry. McCloskey’s idea serves as a more practical foil to other ideas described more abstractly in the book . He posits that economics’ reliance on “hard” mathematics and quantification has diverted attention from its more metaphoric and literary dimensions, which are in his opinion “soft” or “gynocentric” ways of knowing. I do not believe that it is in the essence of woman to be holistic or subjective, but rather that economics can be enriched by diversifying. I think McCloskey’s believes the same but more specifically: bring back storytelling, bring in storytellers. Yes, his writing is a little kitschy -- he carries the overused metaphor of feminine circle/masculine square throughout the essay -- but engaging to read and, again, rich with examples, a notable absence in the book. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">The collection does, however, uniquely include separate critical reviews that remind readers of some of the flaws of feminist thinking; for one, viewing economics solely through narrow lens of gender leaves out important questions of class and race. One standout example of this was discussed by Strassman in her critique of the portrayal of non-market work – do we have inclusive frameworks that consider the impact of allocation of labor in homes where women are often primary heads of household, a trend in many black communities? Furthermore, the collection is unabashedly provincial, largely considering problems only of women in the United States. '''There is always difference to tackle, and economics must be complicated from all angles. Every critique urged an understanding of economics in its broader social context, a pitfall encountered even when using gender as an organizing principle.''' </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Ultimately, it was easy to see the need for reconstruction of economics’ assumptions of objectivity because its ultimate unit of analysis – man or more rightly ''human'' – is a self-aware being who functions in a world affected by such huge amorphous forces as culture, history, and society (unlike the ahistorical molecule in chemistry for example). There is influence of the masculine within economics as with all science, and economics has differentially served people according to sex. The smart researcher recognizes these limitations of the discipline as is. The ultimate conclusion of every single essay in the book (including the critiques) is that economics would be improved by accepting a broader range of theoretical and methodological approaches as valid forms of inquiry. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">A complete reading of this trailblazing text is required to understand the full scope and implications of this thought (I didn’t even mention work by, say, Nancy Folbre who showed that even the utopist society Marx and Engels envisioned perpetuated sexism, especially in trivializing non-market labor). But, '''individual readings of the introduction and works by England and McCloskey are accessible teaching resources and should provide a sufficient taste of feminist critiques of economics'''. In the years since <u>Beyond</u> was published, there have been more books, journals, articles, and collections written on the subject of feminist economics. Please see select examples in appended Works Cited. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">'''Instructors might also find Ferber and Nelson’s 2003 follow-up, <u>Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man</u>, particularly informative''' as it includes updated articles from England and Folbre as well as new work on models of non-market work and post-colonial thought in economics (Figart, 2005). The sequel <u> Feminist Economics Today (FET) </u> begins with an apt documentation of the progress (or lack thereof) made in the fledgling field over a decade after the publication of their pioneering collection <u>Beyond Economic Man</U>. The 90s have seen the rise of many feminist-friendly organizations including CSWEP and the IAFFE as well as the associated birth of ''Feminist Economics'', a national journal. Yet, examples of the feminist movement’s visible impact on the mainstream study of economics are lacking. At the most basic level, the demographics of the discipline remain unchanged with the share of women receiving advanced degrees in economics and securing tenure stagnating and even decreasing between 1992 and 2001 (2,3). More insidiously, development and propagation of the theory in an academic sense has met resistance. An informal survey of AEA economics department chairs, conducted by Ferber and Nelson in 2001, asked respondents to describe the value of feminist theory in economics. Responses ranged from curious but skeptical to dismissive and disheartening with one respondent simply proclaiming, “it’s silly” (22). Pedagogically, introductory texts are “impregnable bastions” with little mention of any alternatives to neoclassical models let alone full-fledged chapters. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">The preface to the collection gives a sense of how feminist theory has not achieved a groundswell of support in mainstream economics. Fully aware of the fact, Ferber and Nelson nonetheless forge ahead in <U>FET</U> in hopes (as always) of broadening the scope of the field. The book offers an excellent variety of essays, a few of which I summarize below, that depart from the explicative nature of its predecessor. The first few pieces harken back to <u>Beyond</U>, including a revised essay by Paula England that further expands on her notion of the false dichotomy between the separative and soluble rational agent. England and Folbre then go on to apply these primary critiques in an economic analysis of the market for home care (of children, of elders). The theory proves useful in locating problems of monitoring and enforcement as well as imperfect information in the market for care. England and Folbre reason that the econometric obsession with quantifiable data under the assumption of entirely self-motivated (and thus “rational” choice) breaks down when considering the private sphere of the US home and family. Nelson continues the separative vs. soluble thread in her essay addressing the larger model of the paradigmatic firm. This piece left me slightly puzzled as to where exactly gender enters the analysis but is interesting nonetheless. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Out of the comprehensive review of topics in <u>FET</u>, I would like to devote particular attention to two specific pieces that apply feminist theory to economics in innovative and informative ways. Lisa Saunders and William Darity Jr., for example, incorporate feminist thinking into analyses of racial economic disparity. Economics can be a powerful tool in targeting the causes of inefficient, unequal discrimination in the market; neoclassical economics, however, often tends to construct narratives that render sexism and racism insignificant and rationalizable. Saunders and Darity list “premarket events, exogenous preferences (unchecked by labor market competition), [and/or] employers having inadequate information about the qualifications of potential employees” (105) as contributors to wage and hiring gaps between genders and races. These factors are immutable and discrimination on the basis of sex and race is rendered near justifiable. After briefly discussing antiracist struggles in economics, the authors focus in on specific empirics and how feminist thought can add to antiracist work. In many labor market discrimination studies, little disparity is found between black and white women, yet qualitative audit studies show considerable evidence of increased prejudice against black women Throughout the hiring process, for example, black women are less likely to be offered an interview, interview, or receive equal wages as equally qualified white women. How can rigorous, quantitative econometric studies be reconciled with the real world observations? </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">In this case of missing discrimination, Saunders and Darity posit that differences in familial and community responsibilities may create greater motivation to work in black women than in similarly qualified white women. Difficult-to-measure motivation serves as the omitted variable. But, things are not quite so simple. In studying this case, Saunders and Darity repeatedly emphasize that racism and sexism can operate similarly or differently from one another, but both work in tandem in each case. Furthermore, discriminatory effects of race and gender are not simply additive or straightforward as quantitative studies often force. Economists study what they see or perceive to be a problem individually (objective and reductionist – like a science). The problem with this step-like variable-by-variable approach, however, is that it takes the variable itself – here, race or gender -- completely out of context. The interaction between sexism and racism is lost. Employers do not make hiring decisions in vacuums swayed by individual variables. Applying the same methods to different forms of oppression is problematic in that it assumes that these forms of exclusion and discrimination work the same way. Here, feminist study can inform antiracist economics and vice versa by considering one group’s impact on the other. As such, Saunders and Darity bring up a host of interesting interdisciplinary questions that would serve as great jumping-off points for any introductory economics or econometrics class at the end of their piece . In sum, the essay concretely shows how the confounding and compounding of race and gender “lenses” can leave research studies unbearably myopic.</P><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Myra Strober’s similarly analyzes the mis-application of neoclassical economic constructs – this time in the field of education. Her discussion questions economics’ narrow characterization of Adam Smith’s rational homo economicus -- this man is motivated solely by self-interest and competitive utility maximization, notions that are, in Strober’s opinion, incongruent with the goals of the education sector. Mainstream economics, for example, puts utmost value on productivity and wage in the market; thus, education is only valuable in its propagation of wage-making skills. Consequently, in times of budget cuts, funding in education is re-distributed to those areas that earn the student the greatest living (but not necessarily the greatest utility or value). One of the most overt and familiar examples of neoclassical models impinging on the classroom is the scarcity of good grades. Strober suggests that, “educators have grafted the notions of scarcity and competition onto the educational system. There is no inherent scarcity of good grades…by creating a scarcity of good grades and therefore competition for those grades, consciously or unconsciously educators emulated the reward system of the competitive model” rather than promoting excellence in an area or the love of learning as teachers should. Strober also comments on issues apart from what is taught conventionally but how material is conveyed. In contrast to neoclassical methods, collaboration and inclusiveness of varying learning styles are central to feminist pedagogical methods. Strober concludes her piece by articulating the ways in which feminist pedagogy differs from neoclassical economic constructs in that it focuses on the process of education rather than its end goals.</p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Ferber and Nelson’s ultimate emphasis in <u>FET</u> is again that economics should be more open to alternative perspectives that depart from mainstream models. The collection includes several (frustratingly-still-nascent) feminist perspectives on economics from the social construction of firms in the market to patterns of globalization. Paula England’s expanded piece on the separative self explores the lack of true altruism, taste formation, and empathy in mainstream economic models; her next piece studies care work from a feminist standpoint that incorporates models of bargaining in the family and endogenous tastes. Saunders and Darity discuss the relationship between feminism and antiracism in research on discriminatory trends. This piece makes the point that without attention to complexity of the interactions being studied, any research conclusions are suspect or moot. Myra Strober discusses the place of neoclassical wellbeing and value, efficiency, and choice in the classroom, arguing that a more feminist pedagogical approach provides better overall outcomes for students. Economics instructors should take note of the upswing in the use of feminist theory in the decade since <u>Beyond</u> was published and use <u>FET</u> as a contemporary guide to heteredox theories attempting to become a part of the “impregnable bastion” that is neoclassical economics. </p><br />
<br />
==Queer Theory==<br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">At times, Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed’s 1997 collection of essays, <u>Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life (HE) </u>, reads more like an activist handbook than a purely academic text. Indeed, a few of the included articles are described explicitly as primers for citizens interested in contested LGBTQ political and economic issues. <u> Homo Economics</u> specifically traces economic issues faced by US gay population today and how economics relates to systematic discrimination as well as the response and backlash to oppression in general. Some of the primary goals of the collection included offering economics-related advice to LGBTQ activists as well as empirically illuminating, qualitatively and quantitatively, the economic profile of the gay community. Some examples of pieces that deal with the general economic status of LGBTQ individuals include Knopp’s urban econ article on gentrification and gay neighborhood formation specifically in New Orleans (45), Gluckman and Reed’s focus on advertisement targeting gay markets (1), and Badgett’s piece on skewed income statistics. Like most of the essays in the book, each of these articles has a very political bent. The myth of universal gay affluence (with biased data from magazine surveys), for example, is falsely being used to motivate marketing campaigns, invisibilize class differences within the gay community, and, worst of all, fuel anti-gay rhetoric. The collection also has several varied pieces highlighting the fight for domestic partner benefits, HIV/AIDS stigmatization, right-wing anti-gay movements, and class representation in LGBTQ protest groups. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Another consistent theme through all of <u>HE</u> is the inherent paradox where, “open homosexuals face occupational segregation and discrimination, but they also owe much of their newfound freedom to economic trends” (xiii). This struggle is very much akin to the entry of females into the workforce. For women, jobs brought increased economic opportunity and freedom but also saw the emergence of the glass ceiling and the maintenance of unequal distribution of labor in the home. This similarity, however, does not immediately lead to coalition building between feminist and anti-gay movements. In his piece, “Do Gay Men Have a Stake in Male Privilege? The Political Economy of Gay Men’s Contradictory Relationship to Feminism”, Jacobs offers a nuanced characterization of the tenuous relationship between the two movements. Here, he explains how the patriarchal heterosexual relationship is both politically and economically privileged; as such, Jacobs reasons that the chance to build a life outside of the nuclear family has been key to liberation movements of both women and the gay community. In public spheres outside the family, however, gay men benefit from the undervaluation of women’s work and general subordination of females. While on of the more engaging and interdisciplinary essays in the collection, Jacobs has few suggestions as to how gay men may become better natural and active allies or feminists. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">The most theoretical economics-related essay in the book is by far an essay by Cornwall entitled “Queer Political Economy: the Social Articulation of Desire.” This shortened (but not short!) piece presents a model for how individual preferences (the underlying basis for invisible hand markets) are formed, particularly for gay individuals. Cornwall then goes on to examine how this model can result in a Pareto inefficient outcome observed across queer communities: “how a substantial fraction of the [gay] population can continue to deny to themselves as well as to others their “true” tastes despite repeated social interaction that includes visible queers” (90). Cornwall gives a wide array of examples from sociolinguistics to cognitive science to back his theory that personal desires or tastes are shaped primarily by immediate social networks. Here, he flouts the neoclassical idea that individuals confront markets alone with a clear idea of what maximizes their utility. Cornwall emphasizes that desire and taste formation is not an unbiased, arbitrary independent event. Instead, group dynamics often lead to “the making of false illusory correlations” (98) that influence social identity and often keep homosexuals closeted. Cornwall’s essay offers up a very plain examination and critique of one of the fundamental assumptions of neoclassical economics and resulting unexplainable phenomena. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">There are concluding worries that both works intonate for the larger study of economics. In <u>Homo Economics</u>, Gluckman and Reed note how quickly the activist saying of “we’re here, we’re queer, get used to it” changed to “we’re here, we’re just like you, don’t worry about it” (10) once more affluent gays gained a stronger visible foothold in society. Here, the pursuit of social change weakened once the gay community was effectively “legitimized” in the public eye, and invited into the fold of the status quo. Reaping the benefits of acceptance often involves ceding the opposing viewpoint, which fights to stretch the concept of what’s right and what’s “normal”.</p><br />
<br />
==Post-Colonial Theory==<br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">On the opposite extreme, Eiman O. Zein-Elabdin and S. Charusheela’s <u>Postcolonialism Meets Economics (PME)</u> offers a terminology-heavy theoretical look at economics’ resistance to colonization by post-colonial theory, a popular framework sweeping other social sciences and the humanities. The following essay will analyze select recommended pieces from these anthologies in turn, concentrating specifically on how they do or do not connect or overlap with personal understandings of philosophy of science and feminist perspectives on economics. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">Zein-Elabdin and Charusheela’s <u>PME</u> is different from <u>HE</u> in that it focuses on the amorphous broad global community as opposed to individuals identifying in a particular way. As such, <u>PME</u> serves as a refreshing departure from narrower works like <u>HE</u> and <u>Beyond Economic Man</u> which are unabashedly provincial, focusing solely on Western problems and concerns from the standpoint of sexual orientation or gender. Readers must be forewarned however: the language in this collection is not entirely accessible, including abstruse terminology that is often left largely unexplained. Nevertheless, the book’s introduction attacks economics as a prime candidate for postcolonial scholars simply because it is so influential in determining the distribution of global wealth and adjoining fate of “post-colonial” countries. Neoclassical development economics is also distinctly “orientalist” in that it privileges industrial societies – that is, any country exhibiting patterns deviating Western industrialist are to be corrected by development policy. But development economics is not the only target of postcolonial critique. Economics as a whole was created on a culture of European modernity and superiority and thus economic knowledge is culturally bound. This critique is reminiscent of feminist philosopher Sandra Harding’s multicultural evaluations of the natural sciences; only those technological advances put forth (or appropriated by) Westerners have been heralded. Further connections to feminist thinking come in Jennifer Olmsted’s “Orientals and Economic Methods: Rereading Feminist Economic Discussions of Islam” which shows how Western feminists construct an image of the oppressed 3rd world Muslim female that is inherently patronizing (165) and disconnected from the true wants of these women. In this intersection of feminism and postcolonial study, Omsted demonstrates how, “even as we challenge certain perviosuly unproblematized assumptions in economics, feminists may reify other dualisms” (166), here Western versus Oriental. </p> <br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">One last interesting article I will mention is Cecilia Conrad’s critique of race as a category in econometric OLS regression techniques. Here, the assumption that race is a fixed variable from sample to sample does not capture the inherent fluidity of this socially constructed category that is reinvented time and time again. Race is an unstable category. Lack of attention to historical understandings of race can lead to false conclusions in studies on, say, longitudinal differences in wage. Conrad offers some clues as to how a more fluid representation of race can be incorporated into econometric models (endogenous variables with simultaneous equations) but does not suggest any kind of firm answer. </p><br />
<br />
<p style="text-indent: 30px;">In conclusion, Nitasha Kaul writes of this positivist problem: “it is only to be expected that a dominant scientific discourse wishes its own history away and strives to be seen as a positivist, scientific (formalized and mathematical) rational, obvious method untainted by ideology and unlocated in its historical moment” (183) In economics, queer theory, feminist, and postcolonial approaches are bent on exposing the inherent inaccuracies behind Eurocentric, androcentric assumptions like utility-maximizing behavior and stable preferences – and traditional economics will resist the change. This problem is apparent in all heterodox approaches – be it women in a male-dominated workplace or a postcolonial approaches to development policy. Ultimate lesson from all the works reviewed here is to persevere regardless.</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Contributor: --[[User:Ncheray1|Ncheray1]] 17:01, 17 May 2011 (EDT)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*Ferber, MA and Nelson, JA. (2003). Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man. <br />
University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Ferber, MA. (1995). “The Study of Economics: A Feminist Critique” The American Economic <br />
Review. 85:2: 357-61. <br />
<br />
*Figart, DM. (2005). “Feminist economics today: Beyond Economic Man” Feminist Formations <br />
17(3): 213-15. <br />
<br />
*Granovetter, M. (1992). “Economic Institutions as Social Constructions: A Framework for <br />
Analysis” 35:3-11<br />
<br />
*Seguino, S. et al. (1996). “Gender and Cooperative Behavior: Economic Man Rides Alone” <br />
Feminist Economics 2(1): 1-21<br />
<br />
*Zein-Elabdin, EO and Charusheela,S. Postcolonialism Meets Economics. 2004. <br />
<br />
*Gluckman, A and Reed, B. Homo Economics: Captialism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life. 1997.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Biology_is_not_destiny&diff=1371Biology is not destiny2011-07-18T20:11:14Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Emphasize that biology is not destiny.==<br />
<br />
"Biology is not destiny" refers to the idea that female students are often stuck in this mindset that intelligence is inherent and it cannot be expanded. Societal beliefs about intelligence and a learning environment are key issues that make a female student competent in various academic fields. <br />
<br />
In one finding, when teachers and instructors tell female students that their intelligence can grow and expand with learning and experience, the students do better on math tests and are more optimistic about their futures in the mathematics field. By emphasizing that intelligence is nurture, not nature (especially in male-dominant fields), professors create inclusive environments where female students feel more confident about their skills and abilities. <br />
<br />
At Stanford University, Carol Dweck, a social and developmental psychologist, has been conducting research on the idea of motivation for the past 40 years. She argues that there are two kinds of mindset when it comes to academic motivation. "A 'growth mindset' (viewing intelligence as a changeable, malleable attribute that can be developed through effort) as opposed to a 'fixed mindset' (viewing intelligence as an inborn, uncontrollable trait) is likely to lead to greater persistence in the face of adversity and ultimately success in any realm."<br />
<br />
Dweck finds that fixed mindsets among students in junior high and college plays a role in creating a gender gap with boys performing well in math and science and growth mindsets among students create no sort of gender gap in academic performance. Dweck and her colleges followed several hundred women at a top-tier univesity in a one semester calculus course and found that growth mindsets also promotes persistence for students. Female students in classrooms where growth mindsets are promoted are more likely to continue taking classes in that field and were less susceptible to negative gender stereotypes about intelligence. <br />
<br />
Faculty in tertiary education should stress to female students that academic skills and abilities can be acquired through hard work and biology does not determine intelligence. <br />
<br />
'''Citation''': Dweck, C. (2008). ''Mindsets and math/science achievement.'' New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, Institute for Advanced Study, Commission on Mathematics and Science Education ''as cited in'' Hill et al. (2010). "Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics". American Association of University Women.<br />
<br />
'''Name''': Angela<br />
<br />
'''Rating''': 8<br />
<br />
<br />
''' [note from ab: Target to teacher as well as to student. Explain that race and gender are social constructions. <br />
ALSO challenge the notion that economic intuition is inborn. It can be taught/learned/acquired--why else are we here?<br />
ALSO see heterodox page cite: "One last interesting article I will mention is Cecilia Conrad’s critique of race as a category in econometric OLS regression techniques. Here, the assumption that race is a fixed variable from sample to sample does not capture the inherent fluidity of this socially constructed category that is reinvented time and time again. Race is an unstable category. Lack of attention to historical understandings of race can lead to false conclusions in studies on, say, longitudinal differences in wage. Conrad offers some clues as to how a more fluid representation of race can be incorporated into econometric models (endogenous variables with simultaneous equations) but does not suggest any kind of firm answer."]'''</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Biology_is_not_destiny&diff=1370Biology is not destiny2011-07-18T20:10:57Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Emphasize that biology is not destiny.==<br />
<br />
"Biology is not destiny" refers to the idea that female students are often stuck in this mindset that intelligence is inherent and it cannot be expanded. Societal beliefs about intelligence and a learning environment are key issues that make a female student competent in various academic fields. <br />
<br />
In one finding, when teachers and instructors tell female students that their intelligence can grow and expand with learning and experience, the students do better on math tests and are more optimistic about their futures in the mathematics field. By emphasizing that intelligence is nurture, not nature (especially in male-dominant fields), professors create inclusive environments where female students feel more confident about their skills and abilities. <br />
<br />
At Stanford University, Carol Dweck, a social and developmental psychologist, has been conducting research on the idea of motivation for the past 40 years. She argues that there are two kinds of mindset when it comes to academic motivation. "A 'growth mindset' (viewing intelligence as a changeable, malleable attribute that can be developed through effort) as opposed to a 'fixed mindset' (viewing intelligence as an inborn, uncontrollable trait) is likely to lead to greater persistence in the face of adversity and ultimately success in any realm."<br />
<br />
Dweck finds that fixed mindsets among students in junior high and college plays a role in creating a gender gap with boys performing well in math and science and growth mindsets among students create no sort of gender gap in academic performance. Dweck and her colleges followed several hundred women at a top-tier univesity in a one semester calculus course and found that growth mindsets also promotes persistence for students. Female students in classrooms where growth mindsets are promoted are more likely to continue taking classes in that field and were less susceptible to negative gender stereotypes about intelligence. <br />
<br />
Faculty in tertiary education should stress to female students that academic skills and abilities can be acquired through hard work and biology does not determine intelligence. <br />
<br />
'''Citation''': Dweck, C. (2008). ''Mindsets and math/science achievement.'' New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, Institute for Advanced Study, Commission on Mathematics and Science Education ''as cited in'' Hill et al. (2010). "Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics". American Association of University Women.<br />
<br />
'''Name''': Angela<br />
<br />
'''Rating''': 8<br />
<br />
'''<br />
[note from ab: Target to teacher as well as to student. Explain that race and gender are social constructions. <br />
ALSO challenge the notion that economic intuition is inborn. It can be taught/learned/acquired--why else are we here?<br />
ALSO see heterodox page cite: "One last interesting article I will mention is Cecilia Conrad’s critique of race as a category in econometric OLS regression techniques. Here, the assumption that race is a fixed variable from sample to sample does not capture the inherent fluidity of this socially constructed category that is reinvented time and time again. Race is an unstable category. Lack of attention to historical understandings of race can lead to false conclusions in studies on, say, longitudinal differences in wage. Conrad offers some clues as to how a more fluid representation of race can be incorporated into econometric models (endogenous variables with simultaneous equations) but does not suggest any kind of firm answer."]'''</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Personal_prejudices&diff=1369Personal prejudices2011-07-18T20:09:14Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflect on and learn more about personal prejudices and values.==<br />
<br />
(Quoted from http://www.projectimplicit.net/generalinfo.php)<br />
<br />
*'''Implicit biases are pervasive.''' They appear as statistically "large" effects that are often shown by majorities of samples of Americans. Over 80% of web respondents show implicit negativity toward the elderly compared to the young; 75-80% of self-identified Whites and Asians show an implicit preference for racial White relative to Black.<br />
<br />
*'''People are often unaware of their implicit biases.''' Ordinary people, including the researchers who direct this project, are found to harbor negative associations in relation to various social groups (i.e., implicit biases) even while honestly (the researchers believe) reporting that they regard themselves as lacking these biases.<br />
<br />
*'''Implicit biases predict behavior.''' From simple acts of friendliness and inclusion to more consequential acts such as the evaluation of work quality, those who are higher in implicit bias have been shown to display greater discrimination. The published scientific evidence is rapidly accumulating. Over 200 published scientific investigations have made use of one or another version of the IAT.<br />
<br />
*'''People differ in levels of implicit bias.''' Implicit biases vary from person to person - for example as a function of the person’s group memberships, the dominance of a person’s membership group in society, consciously held attitudes, and the level of bias existing in the immediate environment. This last observation makes clear that''' implicit attitudes are modified by experience'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="font-size:140%"> '''Take an Implicit Association Test! Visit https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ .''' <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[statistical discrimination]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
strategies to combat IA:</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Inquiry-based_learning&diff=1368Inquiry-based learning2011-07-18T20:04:54Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Inquiry-based learning''' is an educational approach analogous to the scientific method. The model focuses on educators being 'enablers' of knowledge rather than instructors. It moves away from the classic method known as 'chalk and talk' which emphasizes the role of the educator as giving out as much information on what is known to students. The problem with this method is that it is irrelevant and outdated given the fast transmission of data possible due to technology. Rather, it is necessary for educational approaches being used to teach students to become problem solvers and critical thinkers, skills necessary given readily available facts and information-it is the application and manipulation of facts and data that students must learn, and not memorization. <br />
<br />
[[File:imageinquiregif.gif|right|frame|link=pageInquiry-based learning|alt=alt text|source: www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html]]<br />
The inquiry-based learning approach provides students with critical thinking and problem solving skills by making the classroom an open system through which information can flow from students and educators alike. As its name implies, inquiry lies at the heart of the approach. It is through questioning and analysis of a problem/topic, the gathering of data from sources provided by educators and outside sources, and its analysis that students come to learn. At the heart of this approach lies the idea that students will learn to apply their knowledge to real life situations and gain the 'habit of mind' of seeking answers for problems they are faced with and also have a desire to investigate the world as a result.<br />
<br />
For an extensive explanation click [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ here]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
* Teach using the [[case method]]. Providing students with a case representative of the lesson's educational objective effectively engages them beyond pure memorization. With case methods, students are forced to truly understand the underlying concept and apply it to the analysis of the case. Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/cases/index.html here] to see a guide to implementing the case method in the Economics classroom. <br />
<br />
* Using problem sets and including context-rich problems. Problem sets effectively engage the student by asking it to apply knowledge from the lesson. More importantly, using context-rich problems that provide real-life applications of the lesson, and at times excess information, force the student to truly comprehend the material. For a guide on using context-rich problems in the Economics classroom click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/context_rich/index.html here]. The use of [[technology]] in the classroom also enables inquiry-based learning by providing students with multiple resources and representations of the same information. <br />
<br />
* Having a recitation session with students. Recitation sessions allow for close, one-on-one discussion of abstract concepts, of which there are many in the Economics discipline. By having a small group of students meet with a professor to discuss the weeks problem set, one sets the stage for critical discussions--students can discuss their ideas with each other and the professor and therefore gain a multidimensional understanding of concepts. <br />
<br />
[[Image:immersion.gif|left]]<br />
The implementation of inquiry-based learning curricula has been increasingly popular and successful in recent years. Kent Gardens Elementary school in McLean, VA is a great example with its [http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm#whatis/ Partial-Immersion World Language Program]. Through this program students learn a foreign language by being taught in a foreign language for half of the day and English the other half. The philosophy behind this approach is that by teaching students in a foreign language, they will learn it because they will need to apply it rather in the traditional "chalk and talk" method of having them learn the language via memorization of vocabulary and verb conjugations. <br />
In the Kent Gardens program, students are taught Math, Science and Health in the foreign language of choice because these subjects "use manipulatives and concrete, hand-on activities, both of which help with the natural second language acquisition process." On the other hand, Social Studies and Language Arts are taught in English. The program has been cited by education resources profiling the inquiry-based learning method such as [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org].<br />
<br />
== How to Incorporate Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
The [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Educational Resource Information Center] posts a handbook from the Alberta Ministry of Learning aimed at implementing inquiry-based learning titled "Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher's Guide to Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning." To access it, click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED491498.pdf/ here]. A similar, shorter document from Penn State can be found [http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/pdf/IBL.pdf here]. <br />
<br />
[[Image:questions.gif|right]]<br />
<br />
Incorporating Inquiry-Based Learning into the classroom implicates changing the environment from one of instruction to one of curiosity and desire for explanations. This shift in thought can be achieved by adopting several practices and attitudes:<br />
<br />
* Place an emphasis on the "how" rather than the "what" of knowledge, like in [[cooperative learning]]. Students should learn how it is that current knowledge was generated. This is important because it teaches them how to use data/observations to derive knowledge. [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org] gives as an example explaining to students what methods were used to conclude what the Earth's different rock layers are rather than just telling them what these layers are called. Again, by placing an emphasis on the knowledge-creation process, students become accustomed to this way of thought and begin applying it.<br />
<br />
* Don't emphasize that there is "one right answer." In the current system an emphasis is placed on there being a correct answer for topics, but this disencourages student involvement during lecture and therefore disencourages critical thinking and a desire to understand things beyond "face value." As part of this technique , whenever students contribute to lecture but clearly misunderstand a concept instead of telling them they are incorrect, one should explain what the generally accepted answer entails and why it is that the answer is accepted. <br />
<br />
* Questions, Questions, Questions. As an educator, one should ask open-ended questions that are reflective in nature. This [http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/artofquestioning.html article on question types] by Dennie Palmer Wolf. In it, he explains the differences between Inferences Questions which "fill in the gaps," Interpretation Questions which assess comprehension of the consequences of information/ideas, Transfer Questions which are meant to take knowledge to a new place and Hypothesis Questions which relate to predictive thinking. All together, using these question types fosters an inquiry spirit.<br />
<br />
* [[Incorporate 'breaks' into your lectures.]]<br />
<br />
* [[Incorporate 'desirable difficulties' into your course.]]<br />
<br />
* Use [[simulations and models in the classroom]].<br />
<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2001.''' In this article, the authors compare the results of surveys on teaching style conducted in 1995 and then again in 2000. They found that although higher-education institutions have effectively shifted from professors' focus from being more research-oriented to being more focused on their teaching, outdated teaching methods still permeate the discipline. From the surveys conducted, the authors see that classroom presentations are still dominated by the "chalk and talk" method. The authors also find that teacher-student discussion does not occur until until upper level courses, and student-student discussion is rare for the discipline as a whole. On a similar note, it is observed that the use of multiple-choice test formats seems to be excessive--especially in introductory theory courses. Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ670538&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ670538 here] to access the article.<br />
<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2008.''' "In 1995, 2000, and 2005, the authors surveyed U.S. academic economists to investigate how economics is taught in four different types of undergraduate courses at postsecondary institutions. They especially looked for any changes in teaching methods that occurred over this decade, when there were several prominent calls for economists and postsecondary instructors in other fields to devote more attention and effort to teaching and to make greater use of active, student-centered learning methods, with less use of direct instruction ("chalk and talk"). By 2005, although standard lectures and chalkboard presentations were still dominant, there was evidence of slow growth in the use of other teaching methods, including classroom discussions (especially teacher-directed discussions), computer-generated displays (such as PowerPoint), providing students with prepared sets of class notes, and computer lab assignments in econometrics and statistics courses. Internet database searches were used by a small but growing minority of instructors. Classroom experiments were used by a small share of instructors in introductory courses. Assignments or classroom references to the popular financial press, sports, literature, drama, or music were used somewhat more often. Cooperative learning methods were rarely used." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=advanced&pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchCount=1&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=economics+minority&eric_displayStartCount=21&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=kw&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b8031dfca&accno=EJ806178&_nfls=false here] to access it. <br />
<br />
'''Major & Palmer.''' "Problem‑Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative educational approach that is gaining prominence in higher education. A review of the literature of PBL outcomes summarizes, across multiple studies, the positive effects of problem‑based learning. Since PBL brings with it unique challenges to traditional assessment, however, this study suggests alternative approaches. Alternative assessment may provide additional insight into the effectiveness of PBL and other alternative pedagogies." Click [http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm here] to view it.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Due to several factors such as technology and global interconnection the rate of information dissemination has dramatically increased. As result, an educational system that places an emphasis on vast memorization is inefficient. Instead, educational systems should be reorganized to emphasize problem-solving and the generation of knowledge. This shift can be achieved by fostering an environment of inquiry. Inquiry-Based Learning is a tool educators can use to craft student minds that seek more than just concrete answers and rather enjoy full comprehension of the mechanisms underlying the what is known. In other words, by employing Inquiry-Based Learning methods educators can help students learn to create knowledge, a currently necessary skill.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
"Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education: Lessons from the Literature." Manuscript Reviewing Guidelines. Web. 27 June 2011. <http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm>.<br />
<br />
Becker, William E., and Michael Watts. "Teaching Methods in U. S. Undergraduate Economics Courses." The Journal of Economic Education 32.3 (2001): 269-79. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1183384>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. Web. 03 June 2011. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub7.html>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning." Printable Worksheets for Teachers and Students. Web. 01 June 2011. <http://www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html>.<br />
<br />
"World Language - Partial Immersion." FCPS Home Page Redirect Page. Web. 10 June 2011. <http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm>.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Inquiry-based_learning&diff=1367Inquiry-based learning2011-07-18T20:03:16Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Inquiry-based learning''' is an educational approach analogous to the scientific method. The model focuses on educators being 'enablers' of knowledge rather than instructors. It moves away from the classic method known as 'chalk and talk' which emphasizes the role of the educator as giving out as much information on what is known to students. The problem with this method is that it is irrelevant and outdated given the fast transmission of data possible due to technology. Rather, it is necessary for educational approaches being used to teach students to become problem solvers and critical thinkers, skills necessary given readily available facts and information-it is the application and manipulation of facts and data that students must learn, and not memorization. <br />
<br />
[[File:imageinquiregif.gif|right|frame|link=pageInquiry-based learning|alt=alt text|source: www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html]]<br />
The inquiry-based learning approach provides students with critical thinking and problem solving skills by making the classroom an open system through which information can flow from students and educators alike. As its name implies, inquiry lies at the heart of the approach. It is through questioning and analysis of a problem/topic, the gathering of data from sources provided by educators and outside sources, and its analysis that students come to learn. At the heart of this approach lies the idea that students will learn to apply their knowledge to real life situations and gain the 'habit of mind' of seeking answers for problems they are faced with and also have a desire to investigate the world as a result.<br />
<br />
For an extensive explanation click [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ here]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
-Teach using the [[case method]]. Providing students with a case representative of the lesson's educational objective effectively engages them beyond pure memorization. With case methods, students are forced to truly understand the underlying concept and apply it to the analysis of the case. Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/cases/index.html here] to see a guide to implementing the case method in the Economics classroom. <br />
<br />
-Using problem sets and including context-rich problems. Problem sets effectively engage the student by asking it to apply knowledge from the lesson. More importantly, using context-rich problems that provide real-life applications of the lesson, and at times excess information, force the student to truly comprehend the material. For a guide on using context-rich problems in the Economics classroom click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/context_rich/index.html here]. The use of [[technology]] in the classroom also enables inquiry-based learning by providing students with multiple resources and representations of the same information. <br />
<br />
-Having a recitation session with students. Recitation sessions allow for close, one-on-one discussion of abstract concepts, of which there are many in the Economics discipline. By having a small group of students meet with a professor to discuss the weeks problem set, one sets the stage for critical discussions--students can discuss their ideas with each other and the professor and therefore gain a multidimensional understanding of concepts. <br />
<br />
[[Image:immersion.gif|left]]<br />
The implementation of inquiry-based learning curricula has been increasingly popular and successful in recent years. Kent Gardens Elementary school in McLean, VA is a great example with its [http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm#whatis/ Partial-Immersion World Language Program]. Through this program students learn a foreign language by being taught in a foreign language for half of the day and English the other half. The philosophy behind this approach is that by teaching students in a foreign language, they will learn it because they will need to apply it rather in the traditional "chalk and talk" method of having them learn the language via memorization of vocabulary and verb conjugations. <br />
In the Kent Gardens program, students are taught Math, Science and Health in the foreign language of choice because these subjects "use manipulatives and concrete, hand-on activities, both of which help with the natural second language acquisition process." On the other hand, Social Studies and Language Arts are taught in English. The program has been cited by education resources profiling the inquiry-based learning method such as [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org].<br />
<br />
== How to Incorporate Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
The [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Educational Resource Information Center] posts a handbook from the Alberta Ministry of Learning aimed at implementing inquiry-based learning titled "Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher's Guide to Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning." To access it, click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED491498.pdf/ here]. A similar, shorter document from Penn State can be found [http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/pdf/IBL.pdf here]. <br />
<br />
[[Image:questions.gif|right]]<br />
<br />
Incorporating Inquiry-Based Learning into the classroom implicates changing the environment from one of instruction to one of curiosity and desire for explanations. This shift in thought can be achieved by adopting several practices and attitudes:<br />
<br />
* Place an emphasis on the "how" rather than the "what" of knowledge, like in [[cooperative learning]]. Students should learn how it is that current knowledge was generated. This is important because it teaches them how to use data/observations to derive knowledge. [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org] gives as an example explaining to students what methods were used to conclude what the Earth's different rock layers are rather than just telling them what these layers are called. Again, by placing an emphasis on the knowledge-creation process, students become accustomed to this way of thought and begin applying it.<br />
<br />
* Don't emphasize that there is "one right answer." In the current system an emphasis is placed on there being a correct answer for topics, but this disencourages student involvement during lecture and therefore disencourages critical thinking and a desire to understand things beyond "face value." As part of this technique , whenever students contribute to lecture but clearly misunderstand a concept instead of telling them they are incorrect, one should explain what the generally accepted answer entails and why it is that the answer is accepted. <br />
<br />
* Questions, Questions, Questions. As an educator, one should ask open-ended questions that are reflective in nature. This [http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/artofquestioning.html article on question types] by Dennie Palmer Wolf. In it, he explains the differences between Inferences Questions which "fill in the gaps," Interpretation Questions which assess comprehension of the consequences of information/ideas, Transfer Questions which are meant to take knowledge to a new place and Hypothesis Questions which relate to predictive thinking. All together, using these question types fosters an inquiry spirit.<br />
<br />
* [[Incorporate 'breaks' into your lectures.]]<br />
<br />
* [[Incorporate 'desirable difficulties' into your course.]]<br />
<br />
* Use [[simulations and models in the classroom]].<br />
<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2001.''' In this article, the authors compare the results of surveys on teaching style conducted in 1995 and then again in 2000. They found that although higher-education institutions have effectively shifted from professors' focus from being more research-oriented to being more focused on their teaching, outdated teaching methods still permeate the discipline. From the surveys conducted, the authors see that classroom presentations are still dominated by the "chalk and talk" method. The authors also find that teacher-student discussion does not occur until until upper level courses, and student-student discussion is rare for the discipline as a whole. On a similar note, it is observed that the use of multiple-choice test formats seems to be excessive--especially in introductory theory courses. Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ670538&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ670538 here] to access the article.<br />
<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2008.''' "In 1995, 2000, and 2005, the authors surveyed U.S. academic economists to investigate how economics is taught in four different types of undergraduate courses at postsecondary institutions. They especially looked for any changes in teaching methods that occurred over this decade, when there were several prominent calls for economists and postsecondary instructors in other fields to devote more attention and effort to teaching and to make greater use of active, student-centered learning methods, with less use of direct instruction ("chalk and talk"). By 2005, although standard lectures and chalkboard presentations were still dominant, there was evidence of slow growth in the use of other teaching methods, including classroom discussions (especially teacher-directed discussions), computer-generated displays (such as PowerPoint), providing students with prepared sets of class notes, and computer lab assignments in econometrics and statistics courses. Internet database searches were used by a small but growing minority of instructors. Classroom experiments were used by a small share of instructors in introductory courses. Assignments or classroom references to the popular financial press, sports, literature, drama, or music were used somewhat more often. Cooperative learning methods were rarely used." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=advanced&pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchCount=1&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=economics+minority&eric_displayStartCount=21&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=kw&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b8031dfca&accno=EJ806178&_nfls=false here] to access it. <br />
<br />
'''Major & Palmer.''' "Problem‑Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative educational approach that is gaining prominence in higher education. A review of the literature of PBL outcomes summarizes, across multiple studies, the positive effects of problem‑based learning. Since PBL brings with it unique challenges to traditional assessment, however, this study suggests alternative approaches. Alternative assessment may provide additional insight into the effectiveness of PBL and other alternative pedagogies." Click [http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm here] to view it.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Due to several factors such as technology and global interconnection the rate of information dissemination has dramatically increased. As result, an educational system that places an emphasis on vast memorization is inefficient. Instead, educational systems should be reorganized to emphasize problem-solving and the generation of knowledge. This shift can be achieved by fostering an environment of inquiry. Inquiry-Based Learning is a tool educators can use to craft student minds that seek more than just concrete answers and rather enjoy full comprehension of the mechanisms underlying the what is known. In other words, by employing Inquiry-Based Learning methods educators can help students learn to create knowledge, a currently necessary skill.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
"Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education: Lessons from the Literature." Manuscript Reviewing Guidelines. Web. 27 June 2011. <http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm>.<br />
<br />
Becker, William E., and Michael Watts. "Teaching Methods in U. S. Undergraduate Economics Courses." The Journal of Economic Education 32.3 (2001): 269-79. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1183384>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. Web. 03 June 2011. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub7.html>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning." Printable Worksheets for Teachers and Students. Web. 01 June 2011. <http://www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html>.<br />
<br />
"World Language - Partial Immersion." FCPS Home Page Redirect Page. Web. 10 June 2011. <http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm>.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Inquiry-based_learning&diff=1366Inquiry-based learning2011-07-18T20:02:15Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Inquiry-based learning''' is an educational approach analogous to the scientific method. The model focuses on educators being 'enablers' of knowledge rather than instructors. It moves away from the classic method known as 'chalk and talk' which emphasizes the role of the educator as giving out as much information on what is known to students. The problem with this method is that it is irrelevant and outdated given the fast transmission of data possible due to technology. Rather, it is necessary for educational approaches being used to teach students to become problem solvers and critical thinkers, skills necessary given readily available facts and information-it is the application and manipulation of facts and data that students must learn, and not memorization. <br />
<br />
[[File:imageinquiregif.gif|right|frame|link=pageInquiry-based learning|alt=alt text|source: www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html]]<br />
The inquiry-based learning approach provides students with critical thinking and problem solving skills by making the classroom an open system through which information can flow from students and educators alike. As its name implies, inquiry lies at the heart of the approach. It is through questioning and analysis of a problem/topic, the gathering of data from sources provided by educators and outside sources, and its analysis that students come to learn. At the heart of this approach lies the idea that students will learn to apply their knowledge to real life situations and gain the 'habit of mind' of seeking answers for problems they are faced with and also have a desire to investigate the world as a result.<br />
<br />
For an extensive explanation click [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ here]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
-Teach using the [[case method]]. Providing students with a case representative of the lesson's educational objective effectively engages them beyond pure memorization. With case methods, students are forced to truly understand the underlying concept and apply it to the analysis of the case. Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/cases/index.html here] to see a guide to implementing the case method in the Economics classroom. <br />
<br />
-Using problem sets and including context-rich problems. Problem sets effectively engage the student by asking it to apply knowledge from the lesson. More importantly, using context-rich problems that provide real-life applications of the lesson, and at times excess information, force the student to truly comprehend the material. For a guide on using context-rich problems in the Economics classroom click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/context_rich/index.html here]. The use of [[technology]] in the classroom also enables inquiry-based learning by providing students with multiple resources and representations of the same information. <br />
<br />
-Having a recitation session with students. Recitation sessions allow for close, one-on-one discussion of abstract concepts, of which there are many in the Economics discipline. By having a small group of students meet with a professor to discuss the weeks problem set, one sets the stage for critical discussions--students can discuss their ideas with each other and the professor and therefore gain a multidimensional understanding of concepts. <br />
<br />
The implementation of inquiry-based learning curricula has been increasingly popular and successful in recent years. Kent Gardens Elementary school in McLean, VA is a great example with its [http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm#whatis/ Partial-Immersion World Language Program]. [[Image:immersion.gif|left]] Through this program students learn a foreign language by being taught in a foreign language for half of the day and English the other half. The philosophy behind this approach is that by teaching students in a foreign language, they will learn it because they will need to apply it rather in the traditional "chalk and talk" method of having them learn the language via memorization of vocabulary and verb conjugations. <br />
In the Kent Gardens program, students are taught Math, Science and Health in the foreign language of choice because these subjects "use manipulatives and concrete, hand-on activities, both of which help with the natural second language acquisition process." On the other hand, Social Studies and Language Arts are taught in English. The program has been cited by education resources profiling the inquiry-based learning method such as [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org].<br />
<br />
== How to Incorporate Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
The [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Educational Resource Information Center] posts a handbook from the Alberta Ministry of Learning aimed at implementing inquiry-based learning titled "Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher's Guide to Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning." To access it, click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED491498.pdf/ here]. A similar, shorter document from Penn State can be found [http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/pdf/IBL.pdf here]. <br />
<br />
[[Image:questions.gif|right]]<br />
<br />
Incorporating Inquiry-Based Learning into the classroom implicates changing the environment from one of instruction to one of curiosity and desire for explanations. This shift in thought can be achieved by adopting several practices and attitudes:<br />
<br />
* Place an emphasis on the "how" rather than the "what" of knowledge, like in [[cooperative learning]]. Students should learn how it is that current knowledge was generated. This is important because it teaches them how to use data/observations to derive knowledge. [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org] gives as an example explaining to students what methods were used to conclude what the Earth's different rock layers are rather than just telling them what these layers are called. Again, by placing an emphasis on the knowledge-creation process, students become accustomed to this way of thought and begin applying it.<br />
<br />
* Don't emphasize that there is "one right answer." In the current system an emphasis is placed on there being a correct answer for topics, but this disencourages student involvement during lecture and therefore disencourages critical thinking and a desire to understand things beyond "face value." As part of this technique , whenever students contribute to lecture but clearly misunderstand a concept instead of telling them they are incorrect, one should explain what the generally accepted answer entails and why it is that the answer is accepted. <br />
<br />
* Questions, Questions, Questions. As an educator, one should ask open-ended questions that are reflective in nature. This [http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/artofquestioning.html article on question types] by Dennie Palmer Wolf. In it, he explains the differences between Inferences Questions which "fill in the gaps," Interpretation Questions which assess comprehension of the consequences of information/ideas, Transfer Questions which are meant to take knowledge to a new place and Hypothesis Questions which relate to predictive thinking. All together, using these question types fosters an inquiry spirit.<br />
<br />
-[[Incorporate 'breaks' into your lectures.]]<br />
<br />
-[[Incorporate 'desirable difficulties' into your course.]]<br />
<br />
-Use [[simulations and models in the classroom]].<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2001.''' In this article, the authors compare the results of surveys on teaching style conducted in 1995 and then again in 2000. They found that although higher-education institutions have effectively shifted from professors' focus from being more research-oriented to being more focused on their teaching, outdated teaching methods still permeate the discipline. From the surveys conducted, the authors see that classroom presentations are still dominated by the "chalk and talk" method. The authors also find that teacher-student discussion does not occur until until upper level courses, and student-student discussion is rare for the discipline as a whole. On a similar note, it is observed that the use of multiple-choice test formats seems to be excessive--especially in introductory theory courses. Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ670538&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ670538 here] to access the article.<br />
<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2008.''' "In 1995, 2000, and 2005, the authors surveyed U.S. academic economists to investigate how economics is taught in four different types of undergraduate courses at postsecondary institutions. They especially looked for any changes in teaching methods that occurred over this decade, when there were several prominent calls for economists and postsecondary instructors in other fields to devote more attention and effort to teaching and to make greater use of active, student-centered learning methods, with less use of direct instruction ("chalk and talk"). By 2005, although standard lectures and chalkboard presentations were still dominant, there was evidence of slow growth in the use of other teaching methods, including classroom discussions (especially teacher-directed discussions), computer-generated displays (such as PowerPoint), providing students with prepared sets of class notes, and computer lab assignments in econometrics and statistics courses. Internet database searches were used by a small but growing minority of instructors. Classroom experiments were used by a small share of instructors in introductory courses. Assignments or classroom references to the popular financial press, sports, literature, drama, or music were used somewhat more often. Cooperative learning methods were rarely used." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=advanced&pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchCount=1&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=economics+minority&eric_displayStartCount=21&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=kw&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b8031dfca&accno=EJ806178&_nfls=false here] to access it. <br />
<br />
'''Major & Palmer.''' "Problem‑Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative educational approach that is gaining prominence in higher education. A review of the literature of PBL outcomes summarizes, across multiple studies, the positive effects of problem‑based learning. Since PBL brings with it unique challenges to traditional assessment, however, this study suggests alternative approaches. Alternative assessment may provide additional insight into the effectiveness of PBL and other alternative pedagogies." Click [http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm here] to view it.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Due to several factors such as technology and global interconnection the rate of information dissemination has dramatically increased. As result, an educational system that places an emphasis on vast memorization is inefficient. Instead, educational systems should be reorganized to emphasize problem-solving and the generation of knowledge. This shift can be achieved by fostering an environment of inquiry. Inquiry-Based Learning is a tool educators can use to craft student minds that seek more than just concrete answers and rather enjoy full comprehension of the mechanisms underlying the what is known. In other words, by employing Inquiry-Based Learning methods educators can help students learn to create knowledge, a currently necessary skill.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
"Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education: Lessons from the Literature." Manuscript Reviewing Guidelines. Web. 27 June 2011. <http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm>.<br />
<br />
Becker, William E., and Michael Watts. "Teaching Methods in U. S. Undergraduate Economics Courses." The Journal of Economic Education 32.3 (2001): 269-79. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1183384>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. Web. 03 June 2011. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub7.html>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning." Printable Worksheets for Teachers and Students. Web. 01 June 2011. <http://www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html>.<br />
<br />
"World Language - Partial Immersion." FCPS Home Page Redirect Page. Web. 10 June 2011. <http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm>.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Inquiry-based_learning&diff=1365Inquiry-based learning2011-07-18T20:00:32Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Inquiry-based learning''' is an educational approach analogous to the scientific method. The model focuses on educators being 'enablers' of knowledge rather than instructors. It moves away from the classic method known as 'chalk and talk' which emphasizes the role of the educator as giving out as much information on what is known to students. The problem with this method is that it is irrelevant and outdated given the fast transmission of data possible due to technology. Rather, it is necessary for educational approaches being used to teach students to become problem solvers and critical thinkers, skills necessary given readily available facts and information-it is the application and manipulation of facts and data that students must learn, and not memorization. <br />
<br />
[[File:imageinquiregif.gif|right|frame|link=pageInquiry-based learning|alt=alt text|source: www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html]]<br />
The inquiry-based learning approach provides students with critical thinking and problem solving skills by making the classroom an open system through which information can flow from students and educators alike. As its name implies, inquiry lies at the heart of the approach. It is through questioning and analysis of a problem/topic, the gathering of data from sources provided by educators and outside sources, and its analysis that students come to learn. At the heart of this approach lies the idea that students will learn to apply their knowledge to real life situations and gain the 'habit of mind' of seeking answers for problems they are faced with and also have a desire to investigate the world as a result.<br />
<br />
For an extensive explanation click [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ here]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Examples of Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
-Teach using the [[case method]]. Providing students with a case representative of the lesson's educational objective effectively engages them beyond pure memorization. With case methods, students are forced to truly understand the underlying concept and apply it to the analysis of the case. Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/cases/index.html here] to see a guide to implementing the case method in the Economics classroom. <br />
<br />
-Using problem sets and including context-rich problems. Problem sets effectively engage the student by asking it to apply knowledge from the lesson. More importantly, using context-rich problems that provide real-life applications of the lesson, and at times excess information, force the student to truly comprehend the material. For a guide on using context-rich problems in the Economics classroom click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/context_rich/index.html here]. The use of [[technology]] in the classroom also enables inquiry-based learning by providing students with multiple resources and representations of the same information. <br />
<br />
-Having a recitation session with students. Recitation sessions allow for close, one-on-one discussion of abstract concepts, of which there are many in the Economics discipline. By having a small group of students meet with a professor to discuss the weeks problem set, one sets the stage for critical discussions--students can discuss their ideas with each other and the professor and therefore gain a multidimensional understanding of concepts. <br />
<br />
The implementation of inquiry-based learning curricula has been increasingly popular and successful in recent years. Kent Gardens Elementary school in McLean, VA is a great example with its [http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm#whatis/ Partial-Immersion World Language Program]. [[Image:immersion.gif|right]] Through this program students learn a foreign language by being taught in a foreign language for half of the day and English the other half. The philosophy behind this approach is that by teaching students in a foreign language, they will learn it because they will need to apply it rather in the traditional "chalk and talk" method of having them learn the language via memorization of vocabulary and verb conjugations. <br />
In the Kent Gardens program, students are taught Math, Science and Health in the foreign language of choice because these subjects "use manipulatives and concrete, hand-on activities, both of which help with the natural second language acquisition process." On the other hand, Social Studies and Language Arts are taught in English. The program has been cited by education resources profiling the inquiry-based learning method such as [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org].<br />
<br />
== How to Incorporate Inquiry-Based Learning ==<br />
<br />
The [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Educational Resource Information Center] posts a handbook from the Alberta Ministry of Learning aimed at implementing inquiry-based learning titled "Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher's Guide to Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning." To access it, click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED491498.pdf/ here]. A similar, shorter document from Penn State can be found [http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/pdf/IBL.pdf here]. <br />
<br />
[[Image:questions.gif|left]]<br />
<br />
Incorporating Inquiry-Based Learning into the classroom implicates changing the environment from one of instruction to one of curiosity and desire for explanations. This shift in thought can be achieved by adopting several practices and attitudes:<br />
<br />
-Place an emphasis on the "how" rather than the "what" of knowledge, like in [[cooperative learning]]. Students should learn how it is that current knowledge was generated. This is important because it teaches them how to use data/observations to derive knowledge. [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Thirteen.org] gives as an example explaining to students what methods were used to conclude what the Earth's different rock layers are rather than just telling them what these layers are called. Again, by placing an emphasis on the knowledge-creation process, students become accustomed to this way of thought and begin applying it.<br />
<br />
-Don't emphasize that there is "one right answer." In the current system an emphasis is placed on there being a correct answer for topics, but this disencourages student involvement during lecture and therefore disencourages critical thinking and a desire to understand things beyond "face value." As part of this technique , whenever students contribute to lecture but clearly misunderstand a concept instead of telling them they are incorrect, one should explain what the generally accepted answer entails and why it is that the answer is accepted. <br />
<br />
-Questions, Questions, Questions. As an educator, one should ask open-ended questions that are reflective in nature. This [http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/artofquestioning.html article on question types] by Dennie Palmer Wolf. In it, he explains the differences between Inferences Questions which "fill in the gaps," Interpretation Questions which assess comprehension of the consequences of information/ideas, Transfer Questions which are meant to take knowledge to a new place and Hypothesis Questions which relate to predictive thinking. All together, using these question types fosters an inquiry spirit.<br />
<br />
-[[Incorporate 'breaks' into your lectures.]]<br />
<br />
-[[Incorporate 'desirable difficulties' into your course.]]<br />
<br />
-Use [[simulations and models in the classroom]].<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2001.''' In this article, the authors compare the results of surveys on teaching style conducted in 1995 and then again in 2000. They found that although higher-education institutions have effectively shifted from professors' focus from being more research-oriented to being more focused on their teaching, outdated teaching methods still permeate the discipline. From the surveys conducted, the authors see that classroom presentations are still dominated by the "chalk and talk" method. The authors also find that teacher-student discussion does not occur until until upper level courses, and student-student discussion is rare for the discipline as a whole. On a similar note, it is observed that the use of multiple-choice test formats seems to be excessive--especially in introductory theory courses. Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ670538&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ670538 here] to access the article.<br />
<br />
'''Becker & Watts, 2008.''' "In 1995, 2000, and 2005, the authors surveyed U.S. academic economists to investigate how economics is taught in four different types of undergraduate courses at postsecondary institutions. They especially looked for any changes in teaching methods that occurred over this decade, when there were several prominent calls for economists and postsecondary instructors in other fields to devote more attention and effort to teaching and to make greater use of active, student-centered learning methods, with less use of direct instruction ("chalk and talk"). By 2005, although standard lectures and chalkboard presentations were still dominant, there was evidence of slow growth in the use of other teaching methods, including classroom discussions (especially teacher-directed discussions), computer-generated displays (such as PowerPoint), providing students with prepared sets of class notes, and computer lab assignments in econometrics and statistics courses. Internet database searches were used by a small but growing minority of instructors. Classroom experiments were used by a small share of instructors in introductory courses. Assignments or classroom references to the popular financial press, sports, literature, drama, or music were used somewhat more often. Cooperative learning methods were rarely used." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=advanced&pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchCount=1&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=economics+minority&eric_displayStartCount=21&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=kw&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b8031dfca&accno=EJ806178&_nfls=false here] to access it. <br />
<br />
'''Major & Palmer.''' "Problem‑Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative educational approach that is gaining prominence in higher education. A review of the literature of PBL outcomes summarizes, across multiple studies, the positive effects of problem‑based learning. Since PBL brings with it unique challenges to traditional assessment, however, this study suggests alternative approaches. Alternative assessment may provide additional insight into the effectiveness of PBL and other alternative pedagogies." Click [http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm here] to view it.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Due to several factors such as technology and global interconnection the rate of information dissemination has dramatically increased. As result, an educational system that places an emphasis on vast memorization is inefficient. Instead, educational systems should be reorganized to emphasize problem-solving and the generation of knowledge. This shift can be achieved by fostering an environment of inquiry. Inquiry-Based Learning is a tool educators can use to craft student minds that seek more than just concrete answers and rather enjoy full comprehension of the mechanisms underlying the what is known. In other words, by employing Inquiry-Based Learning methods educators can help students learn to create knowledge, a currently necessary skill.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
"Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education: Lessons from the Literature." Manuscript Reviewing Guidelines. Web. 27 June 2011. <http://www.rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/mop4spr01.htm>.<br />
<br />
Becker, William E., and Michael Watts. "Teaching Methods in U. S. Undergraduate Economics Courses." The Journal of Economic Education 32.3 (2001): 269-79. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1183384>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. Web. 03 June 2011. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub7.html>.<br />
<br />
"Inquiry-based Learning." Printable Worksheets for Teachers and Students. Web. 01 June 2011. <http://www.worksheetlibrary.com/teachingtips/inquiry.html>.<br />
<br />
"World Language - Partial Immersion." FCPS Home Page Redirect Page. Web. 10 June 2011. <http://www.fcps.edu/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/partial.htm>.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Blogs&diff=1364Blogs2011-07-18T19:52:31Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Blogs, short for web logs, are websites to which several individuals contribute. Users can post links, start discussions and comment on postings-among many other things. For a detailed explanation of what a blog entails, click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog here]. Like in the case of powerpoints, as blogs become more and more popular the opportunity to use them as teaching tools increases. [[Economics blogs]] are already very popular. <br />
<br />
== Classroom Tool ==<br />
<br />
[[File: Blogging Image1.jpg|right|x275px| Source: http://www.burke.k12.nc.us/technology/onlinelearning/Pages/default.aspx]]<br />
Educators have recognized the potential of blogs and have taken advantage of the tool. Here are a few useful lessons learned:<br />
<br />
-Cost! It is free to set up and monitor a blog. <br />
<br />
-Monitoring. When deciding to use blogs as an educational tool, the educator must recognize that a time investment is necessary. Teachers must recognize this and actively participate in their blogs.<br />
<br />
-Active participation allows the educator to monitor student understanding of the lessons and make clarifications where needed. Students are also more likely to take an active role in their education once they perceive an interest from their educator. <br />
<br />
-Students will read, comment and respond to posts. In the process, they will be exposed to differing views on a similar topic, see tangential topics/arguments and be forced to defend their views. As a result, they will learn to build extensive arguments and make connections between differing topics. It is somewhat like a peer review system that results in full comprehension of the topics from the student's part. <br />
<br />
-Informality. The informal, conversational style of blogs results in less pressure on students to 'sound smart.' Rather, it provides a colloquial setting that enables and encourages active participation. In a blog, the educator represents simply another participant and while authority is still held over students, they are more likely to open up under this setting. As students grow more and more comfortable 'blogging' with their educator, they are more likely to transfer this attitude to the classroom and become more active during lecture. <br />
<br />
[http://www.careersmarts.com/21/BlogsInEducation.pdf Here] is a useful guide to using blogs in the classroom.<br />
<br />
Click [http://rfe.org/showCat.php?cat_id=96 here] to visit AEA's page on blogs, wikis and podcasts.<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
<br />
'''Churchill, 2009.''' In this article, Professor Churchill reviews his study in which a post-graduate class was assigned to maintain a blog as part of the curriculum. Upon implementing the blog for the semester, Prof. Churchill surveys the class on several aspects of the blog use and also provides his observations from the instructor point of view. From the [[study's results]], it is asserted that students feel both like they are a bigger part of their own learning experience and their instructor is actively ensuring they learn. It is also observed that constant monitoring, posting from the educator's part, and making it a form of assessment are all necessary for effective student participation. See the chart below for a detailed description of the results. Click [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00865.x/abstract here] to access the article.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Dyrud, 2005.''' "In its most basic form, a blog is simply a Web-based journal in reverse chronological order. It allows the writer to post ideas and thoughts quickly using conversational language for many to read. It allows the writer to link easily to other sites for support as well as for examples. And it provides a repository for such items. Also, both readers and writers are unrestricted to time and place. One new add-on tool even allows one to call in to make audio posts. Other add-ons include photo albums, guest books, polling tools, quizzing capabilities, and several others. Perhaps the most interesting feature is the ability of readers to comment on posts, making it a forum for interacting. It can be an extension of a classroom, where discussions are continued and where every student gets an equal voice. Or it can be a place where new ideas are formulated through collaboration. Since a basic blog is free and can be set up in less than 5 minutes, using them for both teaching and learning has low cost and high return on investment. Thus, the author states that using blogs to facilitate group work is an appropriate and an excellent medium for student-centered learning." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ798373&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ798373 here] to access the short article.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Williams & Jacobs, 2004.''' This article provides a quick overview of the history of blogs along with their benefits in the classroom. The authors then profile the trial implementation of blogs by the Boston Graduate School of Business in both a Macroeconomics and an International Political Economy course. From this trial, student surveys were collected. Overall, students agreed the blog facilitated learning, served as a tool for the dissemination of knowledge, created a space for reflection and acted as medium for them to interact with one another. Students admitted that blog activity was motivated mainly by a desire to enrich their learning, but also emphasized that participation resulted because it was also a form of class assessment. Please click [http://eprints.qut.edu.au/13066/1/13066.pdf here] to see the article.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
Churchill, Daniel. "Educational Applications of Web 2.0: Using Blogs to Support Teaching and Learning." British Journal of Educational Technology 40.1 (2009): 179-83. Print.<br />
<br />
Dyrud, M. A. "Blogging for Enhanced Teaching and Learning." Business Communication Quarterly 68.1 (2005): 77-80. Print.<br />
<br />
Williams, Jeremy B., and Joanne Jacobs. "Exploring the Use of Blogs as Learning Spaces in the Higher Education Sector." Australasian Journal of Educational Technology20.2 (2004): 232-47. Print.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Simulations_and_models_in_the_classroom&diff=1363Simulations and models in the classroom2011-07-18T19:50:43Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>As the world of technology changes, so must the way we use technology in the classroom. Nevertheless, models and simulations can be high-tech or not. Using simulations and models in the classroom is one of the ways we can take advantage technology. Nevertheless, it is important to properly employ these tools in order to ensure their use is efficient in transferring the knowledge of economics principles to students. Simulations and models, along with [[economic experiments]], are a great way to incorporate [[inquiry-based learning]]. <br />
<br />
== Classroom Incorporation ==<br />
[[Image:paretefficiency.gif|right|300px|]]<br />
<br />
-During lecture, do not just provide graphs for students. Instead, construct and explain them for students. Having students actively construct graphs will make it easier for them to grasp the abstract concepts behind them. <br />
<br />
-Present the same information in different graphs and ask students to compare--doing this will force students to fully grasp the concepts represented in the graphs. It will provide evidence that just because the relationship between 2 given variables is seen in a certain graph, it does not mean either variable cannot be related to a different variable. As a result, students will enable students to recognize and model multiple variable relationships. <br />
<br />
-Continue encouraging the use of graphs in problem sets. Using graphs in problem sets forces the student to apply their theoretical knowledge into a model form. As a result, the student is required to understand the theory in order to properly represented in a model form. Having students model out differing outcomes of effects on given variables further reinforces comprehension and abstraction of theory knowledge.<br />
<br />
Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/simulations/index.html here] for more detailed examples and tips of the use of simulations and graphs in the economics classroom.<br />
<br />
Interesting Links:<br />
<br />
[http://rfe.org/showCat.php?cat_id=96 AEA's page on class experiments and several other useful teaching resources]<br />
<br />
[http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/showcase/games The Economic Network's page on games, experiments and simulations for economics classrooms]<br />
<br />
[http://www.learner.org/workshops/economics/support/econclass_wk2.pdf Example classroom simulation lesson plan]<br />
<br />
[http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/printable/experiments.pdf Handbook on Economic classroom experiments/simulations]<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
<br />
'''Stern et al., 2003.''' In this study, participants were placed in 3 different groups that all presented information on stockbroking. One group presented the information without any graphs, the other provided a professionally-drawned graph (passive graphical representation), and the final one asked students to draw the graphs (active graphical representation). All participants were then presented with a set of questions dealing with 'transfer material' to see how their ability to transfer the material presented to related areas. It was found that participants provided with a graph (passive) performed better than those without any graph. Nevertheless, it was found that those asked to draw the graph performed the best. The authors reason that active graphical representations force students to re-organize concepts and create links between disciplines. The authors also accounted for differing academic backgrounds by running a second study in which they divided participants with lower levels of education into the same 3 conditions, but provided both the graph groups with additional instruction. The study supported initial findings as the active graphical representation group also performed the best. Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ672417&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ672417 here] to access the study.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
Stern, E. "Improving Cross-content Transfer in Text Processing by Means of Active Graphical Representation." Learning and Instruction 13.2 (2003): 191-203. Print.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Multimedia_Presentations&diff=1362Multimedia Presentations2011-07-18T19:47:29Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Many schools encourage the use of technology in the classroom in an attempt to keep it from becoming outdated and boring. More importantly, as the technology at the hands of learners changes, so must the way they learn. A great example of this is the use of multimedia, more specifically presentations tools like powerpoint, in conjunction with lecture. That being said, much research has looked at how to properly employ the use of powerpoint. Here is a list of what the latest research tells us:<br />
[[File:projector.JPG|right|275px|alt=alt text|source: http://www.yorkhighschool.co.uk/_files/images/classroom.JPG]]<br />
-'''Be wary of redundancy.''' Research by Jamet and Le Bohec in 2006 showed a negative effect on several forms of information recall for students presented with powerpoint presentations that directly mirrored the instructor's lecture.<br />
<br />
-'''Concise is better.''' Research in 2003 by Bartsch and Cohern showed that elaborate powerpoint features such as unrelated images, sounds and extraneous information impaired student learning. <br />
<br />
-'''Draw your own graphs.''' Research in 2003 by Stern, Aprea and Ebner showed that groups presented with a graph that was ‘actively illustrated’ performed better in recall tasks than groups passively presented with the same graph.<br />
<br />
Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/media/index.html here] to access ''Starting Point: Teaching and Learning Economics'', a website with additional information on effectively employing multimedia learning in the economics classroom. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== "9 Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning" (Mayer & Moreno, 2003) ==<br />
<br />
This paper by Mayer and Moreno addresses the problems inherent of using multimedia when teaching. The author propose a theory of multimedia learning based on 3 assumptions: the dual-channel assumption, the limited-capacity assumption, and the active-processing assumption. The '''dual-channel assumption''' asserts that humans process verbal and visual in separate systems. The '''limited-capacity assumption''' asserts that a limit exists as to the amount of information each system can process at any given time. The '''active-processing assumption''' asserts that meaningful learning represents necessitates higher cognitive processes such as building connections between verbal and visual representations of information. Based on these assumptions, the authors put forth the idea of '''Cognitive Overload''' which occurs when a learner's cognitive capacity is exceeded by the amount of cognitive processing desired by the learner. Having identified the problem of '''Cognitive Overload''' and the assumptions made, the authors proceed to propose several ways of alleviating it. These ideas/theories are as follows:<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Main Tips/Methods to Incorporate in the Economics Classroom:'''<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Students show better comprehension of concepts presented as diagrams/animations when they are presented with narration rather than text, known as the Modality Effect. This means when presenting graphs, like a demand curve, it is more effective to present the graph and give an explanation of it rather than present the graph with a written explanation. Presenting both a graph and written text overloads the visual learning system while failing to employ the auditory one. A graph presented with a verbal explanations employs both the visual and auditory systems, resulting in more effective transmission of information. <br />
<br />
<br />
2. Students show better comprehension of multimedia explanations when it is presented in paced, student-controlled segments rather than a continuous presentation, known as the Segmentation Effect. This way, the student can make sure they understand one concept before being presented with another, presumably more complex one. Since the comprehension of abstract concepts builds on basic ones, students must have a strong base in order to properly comprehend higher ones. Asking students if they are ready to continue lecture once a unit is complete would be an example of this. Another example would be having a 'question session' after each main concept presented in lecture--this would provide student feedback and clarify any doubts they have. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. Students show better understanding of a multimedia explanation when they are presented with background information (i.e. relevant jargon) prior to the lesson, known as the Pre-training Effect. By pre-training students, they waste less time attempting to understand logistical aspects of lecture and rather focus on the abstract concepts and ideas. Providing all students with a vocabulary sheet via email the night before lecture would be a great example of incorporating this. This way students enter lecture and are not distracted by attempts to understand economic jargon. <br />
<br />
<br />
4. Students show better understanding of multimedia explanations when they lack extraneous information, sounds and images, known as the Coherence Effect. It is believed that unnecessary factors 'take up' cognitive processing away from necessary ones. The idea here is that students will be confused by the abundance of information and the need to sift through it to understand which concepts are relevant. Incorporating this idea in the economics classroom means prudence when creating powerpoint slides. One must must be careful to only include relevant information and not be swayed by the novelty of including elaborate explanations or unnecessary tangents. <br />
<br />
<br />
5. In multimedia presentations that one cannot exclude extraneous information from, students show better understanding when educators signal which information is important (i.e. bolding important terms or underlining them), known as the Signaling Effect. An easy way to incorporate this concept would be providing students with a small outline which listed the main objectives of lecture. The use of bolding, underlining and the use of colors to indicate importance is another possible technique. <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Whenever image-relevant text is used, student understanding is better when it is placed near the image it corresponds to, known as the Spatial Contiguity Effect. The assumption here is that students spend less time attempting to attach the image and the text and therefore have more cognitive capacity left over to understand more abstract concepts. <br />
<br />
<br />
7. Comprehension is negatively affected when on-screen text mirrors lecture, known as the Redundancy Effect. For example, an explanation of diminishing marginal utility is given by a professor, but also concurrently presented in text on a powerpoint slide. It is believed that presenting the exact same information via the auditory and visual system results in cognitive overload. In order to avoid this, powerpoint presentations should be relevant to lecture but not be a word-by-word repetition. <br />
<br />
<br />
8. When presented with mixtures of narration and multimedia (i.e. a verbal explanation and an animation) students show better understanding if both forms are presented simultaneously rather than successively, known as the Temporal Contiguity Effect. For example, instead of lecturing on the income effect and ''then'' showing an animation that also explains it, the explanation and the animation should be presented in a sequential, simultaneous manner. It is believed that by harnessing both the auditory and visual systems and providing complementary information through each system, the student will not suffer from cognitive overload and will therefore better comprehend the concept being taught. <br />
<br />
<br />
9. The Spatial Ability Effect has to do with personalizing multimedia presentations for each student. It holds that students with high spatial ability benefit more from simultaneous presentation of narration, sound and images because they have a higher threshold for undergoing cognitive overload. Therefore they should be presented with more elaborate multimedia presentations.<br />
<br />
For the original article, click [http://www.elizabethoc.com/9ways/article.pdf here].<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
<br />
'''Bartsch & Cobern, 2003.''' "We investigated whether students liked and learned more from PowerPoint presentations than from overhead transparencies. Students were exposed to lectures supported by transparencies and two different types of PowerPoint presentations. At the end of the semester, students preferred PowerPoint presentations but this preference was not found on ratings taken immediately after the lectures. Students performed worse on quizzes when PowerPoint presentations included non-text items such as pictures and sound effects. A second study further examined these findings. In this study participants were shown PowerPoint slides that contained only text, contained text and a relevant picture, and contained text with a picture that was not relevant. Students performed worse on recall and recognition tasks and had greater dislike for slides with pictures that were not relevant. We conclude that PowerPoint can be beneficial, but material that is not pertinent to the presentation can be harmful to students' learning." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ778703&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ778703/ here] to see the study.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Jamet & Le Bohec, 2006.''' "The purpose of this study was to examine the redundancy effects obtained when spoken information was duplicated in writing during the learning of a multimedia document. Documents consisting of diagrams and spoken information on the development of memory models were presented to three groups of students. In the first group, no written text was presented. In the second, written sentences redundant with the spoken information were progressively presented on the screen while in the third group, these written sentences were presented together. The results show that whatever the type of text presentation (sequential or static), the duplication of information in the written mode led to a substantial impairment in subsequent retention and transfer tests as well as in a task in which the memorization of diagrams was evaluated. This last result supports the hypothesis that the visual channel is overloaded as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggests." Click [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X06000294/ here] to see the study.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Multimedia should serve as a guide to lecture, not compete with the teacher. This means teachers have to be careful to not only keep student attention, but also make smart multimedia decisions to ensure every minute of lecture is transmitting information to the student in an efficient, engaging way. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
Bartsch, R. "Effectiveness of PowerPoint Presentations in Lectures." Computers & Education 41.1 (2003): 77-86. Print.<br />
<br />
Jamet, E., and O. Lebohec. "The Effect of Redundant Text in Multimedia Instruction." Contemporary Educational Psychology 32.4 (2007): 588-98. Print. <br />
<br />
Mayer, Richard, and Roxana Moreno. "Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning." Educational Psychologist 38.1 (2003): 43-52. Print.<br />
<br />
Stern, E. "Improving Cross-content Transfer in Text Processing by Means of Active Graphical Representation." Learning and Instruction 13.2 (2003): 191-203. Print.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Multimedia_Presentations&diff=1361Multimedia Presentations2011-07-18T19:45:28Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Many schools encourage the use of technology in the classroom in an attempt to keep it from becoming outdated and boring. More importantly, as the technology at the hands of learners changes, so must the way they learn. A great example of this is the use of multimedia, more specifically presentations tools like powerpoint, in conjunction with lecture. That being said, much research has looked at how to properly employ the use of powerpoint. Here is a list of what the latest research tells us:<br />
<br />
-'''Be wary of redundancy.''' Research by Jamet and Le Bohec in 2006 showed a negative effect on several forms of information recall for students presented with powerpoint presentations that directly mirrored the instructor's lecture.<br />
<br />
-'''Concise is better.''' Research in 2003 by Bartsch and Cohern showed that elaborate powerpoint features such as unrelated images, sounds and extraneous information impaired student learning. <br />
<br />
-'''Draw your own graphs.''' Research in 2003 by Stern, Aprea and Ebner showed that groups presented with a graph that was ‘actively illustrated’ performed better in recall tasks than groups passively presented with the same graph.<br />
<br />
Click [http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/media/index.html here] to access ''Starting Point: Teaching and Learning Economics'', a website with additional information on effectively employing multimedia learning in the economics classroom. <br />
<br />
[[File:projector.JPG|center|frame|75px|alt=alt text|source: http://www.yorkhighschool.co.uk/_files/images/classroom.JPG]]<br />
<br />
== "9 Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning" (Mayer & Moreno, 2003) ==<br />
<br />
This paper by Mayer and Moreno addresses the problems inherent of using multimedia when teaching. The author propose a theory of multimedia learning based on 3 assumptions: the dual-channel assumption, the limited-capacity assumption, and the active-processing assumption. The '''dual-channel assumption''' asserts that humans process verbal and visual in separate systems. The '''limited-capacity assumption''' asserts that a limit exists as to the amount of information each system can process at any given time. The '''active-processing assumption''' asserts that meaningful learning represents necessitates higher cognitive processes such as building connections between verbal and visual representations of information. Based on these assumptions, the authors put forth the idea of '''Cognitive Overload''' which occurs when a learner's cognitive capacity is exceeded by the amount of cognitive processing desired by the learner. Having identified the problem of '''Cognitive Overload''' and the assumptions made, the authors proceed to propose several ways of alleviating it. These ideas/theories are as follows:<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Main Tips/Methods to Incorporate in the Economics Classroom:'''<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Students show better comprehension of concepts presented as diagrams/animations when they are presented with narration rather than text, known as the Modality Effect. This means when presenting graphs, like a demand curve, it is more effective to present the graph and give an explanation of it rather than present the graph with a written explanation. Presenting both a graph and written text overloads the visual learning system while failing to employ the auditory one. A graph presented with a verbal explanations employs both the visual and auditory systems, resulting in more effective transmission of information. <br />
<br />
<br />
2. Students show better comprehension of multimedia explanations when it is presented in paced, student-controlled segments rather than a continuous presentation, known as the Segmentation Effect. This way, the student can make sure they understand one concept before being presented with another, presumably more complex one. Since the comprehension of abstract concepts builds on basic ones, students must have a strong base in order to properly comprehend higher ones. Asking students if they are ready to continue lecture once a unit is complete would be an example of this. Another example would be having a 'question session' after each main concept presented in lecture--this would provide student feedback and clarify any doubts they have. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. Students show better understanding of a multimedia explanation when they are presented with background information (i.e. relevant jargon) prior to the lesson, known as the Pre-training Effect. By pre-training students, they waste less time attempting to understand logistical aspects of lecture and rather focus on the abstract concepts and ideas. Providing all students with a vocabulary sheet via email the night before lecture would be a great example of incorporating this. This way students enter lecture and are not distracted by attempts to understand economic jargon. <br />
<br />
<br />
4. Students show better understanding of multimedia explanations when they lack extraneous information, sounds and images, known as the Coherence Effect. It is believed that unnecessary factors 'take up' cognitive processing away from necessary ones. The idea here is that students will be confused by the abundance of information and the need to sift through it to understand which concepts are relevant. Incorporating this idea in the economics classroom means prudence when creating powerpoint slides. One must must be careful to only include relevant information and not be swayed by the novelty of including elaborate explanations or unnecessary tangents. <br />
<br />
<br />
5. In multimedia presentations that one cannot exclude extraneous information from, students show better understanding when educators signal which information is important (i.e. bolding important terms or underlining them), known as the Signaling Effect. An easy way to incorporate this concept would be providing students with a small outline which listed the main objectives of lecture. The use of bolding, underlining and the use of colors to indicate importance is another possible technique. <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Whenever image-relevant text is used, student understanding is better when it is placed near the image it corresponds to, known as the Spatial Contiguity Effect. The assumption here is that students spend less time attempting to attach the image and the text and therefore have more cognitive capacity left over to understand more abstract concepts. <br />
<br />
<br />
7. Comprehension is negatively affected when on-screen text mirrors lecture, known as the Redundancy Effect. For example, an explanation of diminishing marginal utility is given by a professor, but also concurrently presented in text on a powerpoint slide. It is believed that presenting the exact same information via the auditory and visual system results in cognitive overload. In order to avoid this, powerpoint presentations should be relevant to lecture but not be a word-by-word repetition. <br />
<br />
<br />
8. When presented with mixtures of narration and multimedia (i.e. a verbal explanation and an animation) students show better understanding if both forms are presented simultaneously rather than successively, known as the Temporal Contiguity Effect. For example, instead of lecturing on the income effect and ''then'' showing an animation that also explains it, the explanation and the animation should be presented in a sequential, simultaneous manner. It is believed that by harnessing both the auditory and visual systems and providing complementary information through each system, the student will not suffer from cognitive overload and will therefore better comprehend the concept being taught. <br />
<br />
<br />
9. The Spatial Ability Effect has to do with personalizing multimedia presentations for each student. It holds that students with high spatial ability benefit more from simultaneous presentation of narration, sound and images because they have a higher threshold for undergoing cognitive overload. Therefore they should be presented with more elaborate multimedia presentations.<br />
<br />
For the original article, click [http://www.elizabethoc.com/9ways/article.pdf here].<br />
<br />
== Evidence ==<br />
<br />
'''Bartsch & Cobern, 2003.''' "We investigated whether students liked and learned more from PowerPoint presentations than from overhead transparencies. Students were exposed to lectures supported by transparencies and two different types of PowerPoint presentations. At the end of the semester, students preferred PowerPoint presentations but this preference was not found on ratings taken immediately after the lectures. Students performed worse on quizzes when PowerPoint presentations included non-text items such as pictures and sound effects. A second study further examined these findings. In this study participants were shown PowerPoint slides that contained only text, contained text and a relevant picture, and contained text with a picture that was not relevant. Students performed worse on recall and recognition tasks and had greater dislike for slides with pictures that were not relevant. We conclude that PowerPoint can be beneficial, but material that is not pertinent to the presentation can be harmful to students' learning." Click [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ778703&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ778703/ here] to see the study.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Jamet & Le Bohec, 2006.''' "The purpose of this study was to examine the redundancy effects obtained when spoken information was duplicated in writing during the learning of a multimedia document. Documents consisting of diagrams and spoken information on the development of memory models were presented to three groups of students. In the first group, no written text was presented. In the second, written sentences redundant with the spoken information were progressively presented on the screen while in the third group, these written sentences were presented together. The results show that whatever the type of text presentation (sequential or static), the duplication of information in the written mode led to a substantial impairment in subsequent retention and transfer tests as well as in a task in which the memorization of diagrams was evaluated. This last result supports the hypothesis that the visual channel is overloaded as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggests." Click [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X06000294/ here] to see the study.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Multimedia should serve as a guide to lecture, not compete with the teacher. This means teachers have to be careful to not only keep student attention, but also make smart multimedia decisions to ensure every minute of lecture is transmitting information to the student in an efficient, engaging way. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
Bartsch, R. "Effectiveness of PowerPoint Presentations in Lectures." Computers & Education 41.1 (2003): 77-86. Print.<br />
<br />
Jamet, E., and O. Lebohec. "The Effect of Redundant Text in Multimedia Instruction." Contemporary Educational Psychology 32.4 (2007): 588-98. Print. <br />
<br />
Mayer, Richard, and Roxana Moreno. "Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning." Educational Psychologist 38.1 (2003): 43-52. Print.<br />
<br />
Stern, E. "Improving Cross-content Transfer in Text Processing by Means of Active Graphical Representation." Learning and Instruction 13.2 (2003): 191-203. Print.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Inclusive_communication&diff=1360Inclusive communication2011-07-18T19:41:18Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div><span style="color:black">'''Inclusive communication''' refers to discourse that encourages some students while discouraging others. When non-inclusive communication is used in the classroom, often times underrepresented students are less likely to participate and contribute in the classroom.</span><br />
<br />
==Examples of Non-Inclusive Communication==<br />
<br />
'''Who:''' Roberta M. Hall and Bernice R. Sandler <br />
<br />
'''What:''' Compiled information demonstrating the impact of non-inclusive communication in the classroom. <br />
<br />
'''How:''' An example of non-inclusive communication practiced in the classroom is the use of non-parallel terminology. Often times, faculty will refer to males in a classroom as "men" where areas the females in the classroom will be referred to as "girls" or "gals". The use of such terminology provides the implication that women are "less serious and less capable" than men, in turn marginalizing women in the classroom. Another example of such behavior is apparent when a faculty member may "coach" men to a higher degree in comparison to women. For instance, by encouraging a male student to elaborate on a topic by stating "Tell me more about that" while not doing the same for women. <br />
<br />
Sandler and Hall briefly mention a few variables which cause '''students of color''' to feel uncomfortable participating in the classroom. For instance, some students of color may hesitate to answer a question or ask for help if they believe by doing so may confirm the stereotype that they are ill-prepared or less able. This belief goes hand in hand with the belief that they should accomplish tasks on their own. They may also be concerned that their performance is reflective of the performance of all people of color. Another issue, specifically with women of color, is the clash between cultural values and classroom interactions. "American Indian, Latino, and Asian-American students (particularly women) mentioned cultural prescriptions against speaking up in class...."<br />
<br />
'''Evidence:''' Sandler and Hall's research demonstrated that biased language used by faculty resulted in low rates of participation by women. Female students stated that when attempting to communicate with faculty, many times they were interrupted, provided little eye contact, and offered little guidance or criticism in the classroom. Hall and Sandler provide a number of recommendations for undergraduate professors in order to avoid non-inclusive communication.<br />
<br />
The study can be found [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED215628.pdff/ here]<br />
<br />
== How to Promote Inclusive Communication ==<br />
<br />
[[File:Inclusive Communication Image1.jpg|right| Link:http://www.ocean.edu/academics/special_programs/honors/honors.htm]]<br />
<br />
* "Make a specific effort to call directly on women as well as on men students"<br />
<br />
* "Assume an attentive posture when responding to women's questions or listening to their comments."<br />
<br />
* "Use the same tone in talking with women as with men students"<br />
<br />
* "Note patterns of interruption to determine if women students are interrupted more than men-either by yourself or by other students."<br />
<br />
* "Use parallel terminology when addressing women and men students in class, or referring to men and women in classroom examples."<br />
<br />
* "Watch for and respond to nonverbal cues that indicate women students' readiness to participate in class."<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
To see more recommendations click [http://www.bernicesandler.com/ here] and scroll to "The Chilly Climate."<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
<br />
"Inclusive Communication." McMaster University. McMaster University, 2008. Web. 28 Mar. 2011. <http://www.mcmaster.ca/hres/inclusive_communication.html>.<br />
<br />
Hall, Roberta M., and Bernice R. Sandler. The Classroom Cimate: A Chilly One for Women? Rep. Washington, D.C: Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, 1982. Print. </div></div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Wait_time&diff=1359Wait time2011-07-18T19:40:02Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Wait time''' is the duration of a pause after a question is posed. Studies have shown that students of color and female students respond positively when wait time is increased. <br />
__NOTOC__<br />
==Example==<br />
Myra Sadker, a former professor of Education and Dean of the School of Education at American Univeristy, and David Sadker, also a professor of Education at American University, investigated the effect of '''wait time''' on differential participation in the class discussion. Their study and observation of undergraduate classrooms found that teachers unconsciously gave white males more wait time than female students and students of color. Sadker and Sadker hypothesize that longer pauses after questions convey a "vote of confidence" for the student's answer, and thus motivates participation.<br />
<br />
==How to incorporate wait time==<br />
[[File:Wait Time Image1.jpg|right|x200px|Link:http://irishautismaction.blogspot.com/2010/02/vote-on-time.html]]<br />
<br />
<br />
*Try to be more mindful of differential teacher-student interactions in the classroom<br />
<br />
*Undergraduate professors could track and codify participation in class discussion <br />
<br />
*Formulate plans to randomize grouped class seating <br />
<br />
*Include group and presentation work<br />
<br />
*Increase wait times for all students.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Evidence==<br />
Studies compiled by Robert J. Stahl, a Professor in the Division of Curriculum and Instruction at Arizona State University, have shown that increasing wait time to 3 or more seconds results in positive effects for both teacher and student. These benefits include increased number and length of relevant responses volunteered, as well as improved questioning techniques by the teacher. Typical increased wait times lasted between 3 and 7 seconds for high-level questions, as opposed to the <1 second wait time for all questions observed in most classrooms.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
<br />
* Rowe, M. (1987). Wait-time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up. American Educator, 11, 38-43.<br />
<br />
* Sadker, D., Sadker, M. (1994) Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. Toronto, ON: Simon & Schuster Inc.<br />
<br />
* Stahl, R. (1994). Using "think-time" and "wait-time" skillfully in the classroom. ERIC Digest. Bloomington, IN: ERIC clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education. ED370885. [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED370885 www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED370885 ]<br />
<br />
*Swift, J. Nathan; Gooding, C. Thomas "Interaction of wait time feedback and questioning instruction on middle school science teaching" Journal of Research in Science Teaching, vol. 20, Issue 8, pp.721-730<br />
<br />
*Tobin. K. (1987). The role of wait time in higher cognitive learning. Review of educational research, 57, 69-95.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Share&diff=1358Share2011-07-18T19:38:02Z<p>130.58.65.10: Created page with " * Add to an existing page by clicking "edit." * Compose a new page by searching for a novel page title of your choosing, creating it, and then pasting in your content. We will ..."</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
* Add to an existing page by clicking "edit."<br />
* Compose a new page by searching for a novel page title of your choosing, creating it, and then pasting in your content. We will add the necessary links to your page once it exists.<br />
* Alternatively, email your material to XXXXX@swarthmore.edu, and we will post it.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1357Discrimination2011-07-18T19:19:03Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
* assumes the students most comfortable in speaking about economics with the instructor are those who have the best understanding of, or most interest in, the material.<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy, and in the structure of the classroom, and these structures tend to work against, rather than for, members of disadvantaged groups. <br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1356Discrimination2011-07-18T19:08:54Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
* Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
* Firms identifying job applicants through referrals from existing workers<br />
* An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
* Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
* Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
In the classroom, institutional discrimination can occur when an instructor<br />
* uses slang or examples that are unknown to students from certain socioeconomic or cultural backgrounds<br />
* holds office hours, or otherwise schedules significant learning opportunities, during times commonly used for work-study jobs or athletic practices<br />
* writes exam questions that require students to have prior knowledge of a situation or phenomenon<br />
<br />
<br />
Inequalities are embedded in the structure of the economy and the classroom and members of disadvantaged groups more often <br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1355Discrimination2011-07-18T18:44:56Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
- Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
- Firm recruits job applicant by using referrals from existing workers.<br />
- An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
- Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
-Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
In the classroom, <br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1354Discrimination2011-07-18T18:44:32Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Institutional Discrimination ==<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Institutional discrimination may result in equilibrium allocations that are unfair and inefficient. Government intervention may be necessary to address the imperfection. <br />
<br />
'''Examples'''<br />
- Last-hired-first-fired practices<br />
- Firm recruits job applicant by using referrals from existing workers.<br />
- An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/ethnicity/class …<br />
- Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
-Accessibility on college campuses<br />
<br />
In the classroom, <br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1353Discrimination2011-07-18T18:28:38Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
<br />
Institutional Discrimination<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Ex. Last-hired, first-fired practices<br />
Ex. Firm recruits job applicant by using referrals from existing workers.<br />
Ex. An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/class …<br />
Ex. Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
Ex. Looking someone in the eye and trust-building for economic transactions<br />
<br />
a. Is the institutional discrimination efficient? Is it fair?<br />
b. Is institutional discrimination part of a long-run equilibrium? <br />
c. What are the possible government policies, if any, that could improve the situation?<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[statistical discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Animus-based_discrimination&diff=1352Animus-based discrimination2011-07-18T18:28:03Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—occurs when agents' personal prejudices or “tastes” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way) affect their treatment of those individuals. <br />
<br />
In the labor market, noneconomic tastes for discrimination (animus, bigotry,…) may be introduced into the market by a firm’s owners, employees, or customers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[statistical discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Personal_prejudices&diff=1351Personal prejudices2011-07-18T18:27:48Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflect on and learn more about personal prejudices and values.==<br />
<br />
(Quoted from http://www.projectimplicit.net/generalinfo.php)<br />
<br />
*Implicit biases are pervasive. They appear as statistically "large" effects that are often shown by majorities of samples of Americans. Over 80% of web respondents show implicit negativity toward the elderly compared to the young; 75-80% of self-identified Whites and Asians show an implicit preference for racial White relative to Black.<br />
<br />
*People are often unaware of their implicit biases. Ordinary people, including the researchers who direct this project, are found to harbor negative associations in relation to various social groups (i.e., implicit biases) even while honestly (the researchers believe) reporting that they regard themselves as lacking these biases.<br />
<br />
*Implicit biases predict behavior. From simple acts of friendliness and inclusion to more consequential acts such as the evaluation of work quality, those who are higher in implicit bias have been shown to display greater discrimination. The published scientific evidence is rapidly accumulating. Over 200 published scientific investigations have made use of one or another version of the IAT.<br />
<br />
*People differ in levels of implicit bias. Implicit biases vary from person to person - for example as a function of the person’s group memberships, the dominance of a person’s membership group in society, consciously held attitudes, and the level of bias existing in the immediate environment. This last observation makes clear that implicit attitudes are modified by experience.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="font-size:140%"> '''Take an Implicit Association Test! Visit https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ .''' <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[statistical discrimination]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
strategies to combat IA:</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Animus-based_discrimination&diff=1350Animus-based discrimination2011-07-18T18:27:12Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—occurs when agents' personal prejudices or “tastes” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way) affect their treatment of those individuals. <br />
<br />
In the labor market, noneconomic tastes for discrimination (animus, bigotry,…) may be introduced into the market by a firm’s owners, employees, or customers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Statistical_discrimination&diff=1349Statistical discrimination2011-07-18T18:26:45Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Statistical Discrimination—occurs when agents use an observable characteristic of an individual to make inferences about another attribute that is relevant to the transaction but more difficult to observe. The agents' beliefs about group averages affect their treatment of an individual member of the group.<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Statistical_discrimination&diff=1348Statistical discrimination2011-07-18T18:26:31Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Statistical Discrimination—occurs when agents use an observable characteristic of an individual to make inferences about another attribute that is relevant to the transaction but more difficult to observe. The agents' beliefs about group averages affect their treatment of an individual member of the group.<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Statistical_discrimination&diff=1347Statistical discrimination2011-07-18T18:26:09Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Statistical Discrimination—occurs when agents use an observable characteristic of an individual to make inferences about another attribute that is relevant to the transaction but more difficult to observe. The agents' beliefs about group averages affect their treatment of an individual member of the group.<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[Personal prejudices and values|implicit associations]], and [[Discrimination|institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Statistical_discrimination&diff=1346Statistical discrimination2011-07-18T18:23:21Z<p>130.58.65.10: Created page with " Statistical Discrimination—occurs when agents use an observable characteristic of an individual to make inferences about another attribute that is relevant to the transaction ..."</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
Statistical Discrimination—occurs when agents use an observable characteristic of an individual to make inferences about another attribute that is relevant to the transaction but more difficult to observe. The agents' beliefs about group averages affect their treatment of an individual member of the group.<br />
<br />
Compare to [[animus-based discrimination]], [[implicit associations]], and [[institutional discrimination]].</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Animus-based_discrimination&diff=1345Animus-based discrimination2011-07-18T18:05:23Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—occurs when agents' personal prejudices or “tastes” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way) affect their treatment of those individuals. <br />
<br />
In the labor market, noneconomic tastes for discrimination (animus, bigotry,…) may be introduced into the market by a firm’s owners, employees, or customers.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Animus-based_discrimination&diff=1344Animus-based discrimination2011-07-18T18:02:26Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—occurs when agents' personal prejudices or “tastes” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way) influence their treatment of those individuals. <br />
<br />
In the labor market, noneconomic tastes for discrimination (animus, bigotry,…) may be introduced into the market by a firm’s owners, employees, or customers.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Animus-based_discrimination&diff=1343Animus-based discrimination2011-07-18T17:38:54Z<p>130.58.65.10: Created page with " Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—personal prejudice, or a “taste,” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way). In the labo..."</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
Animus-Based (or Taste-Based) Discrimination—personal prejudice, or a “taste,” against associating with members of a particular group (in a particular way). <br />
<br />
In the labor market, noneconomic tastes for discrimination (animus, bigotry,…) may be introduced into the market by a firm’s owners, employees, or customers.</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1342Discrimination2011-07-18T17:37:23Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, [[animus-based discrimination]] and [[statistical discrimination]]. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
<br />
Institutional Discrimination<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Ex. Last-hired, first-fired practices<br />
Ex. Firm recruits job applicant by using referrals from existing workers.<br />
Ex. An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/class …<br />
Ex. Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
Ex. Looking someone in the eye and trust-building for economic transactions<br />
<br />
a. Is the institutional discrimination efficient? Is it fair?<br />
b. Is institutional discrimination part of a long-run equilibrium? <br />
c. What are the possible government policies, if any, that could improve the situation?</div>130.58.65.10https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/div_econ/index.php?title=Discrimination&diff=1341Discrimination2011-07-18T17:36:52Z<p>130.58.65.10: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Be aware of a third theory of discrimination.==<br />
<br />
Most of us are fully aware of two economic theories of discrimination, animus-based discrimination and statistical discrimination. Be on the lookout for institutional discrimination which we want to add to our teaching and remove from our classrooms.<br />
<br />
<br />
Institutional Discrimination<br />
<br />
Definition: Institutional Discrimination is the adverse treatment of, and impact on, members of minority groups because of the explicit and implicit rules that regulate society (including rules set and enforced by firms, schools, government, markets, and society). Institutional discrimination occurs when the rules, practices, or “nonconscious understandings of appropriate conduct” (Haney Lopez) systematically advantage or disadvantage members of particular groups. <br />
<br />
Ex. Last-hired, first-fired practices<br />
Ex. Firm recruits job applicant by using referrals from existing workers.<br />
Ex. An interviewer’s ease of communication with people who are of the same race/gender/class …<br />
Ex. Licensing rules for beauty parlor operators and pin curls<br />
Ex. Looking someone in the eye and trust-building for economic transactions<br />
<br />
a. Is the institutional discrimination efficient? Is it fair?<br />
b. Is institutional discrimination part of a long-run equilibrium? <br />
c. What are the possible government policies, if any, that could improve the situation?</div>130.58.65.10