LING073 - User contributions [en]

Chechen and English

2019-03-21T14:40:11Z

Apinto2: Created page with "Category:Sp19_TranslationPairs"

[[Category:Sp19_TranslationPairs]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T15:02:53Z

Apinto2: /* Present Perfect Tense */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : pour
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : ???

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: receive
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive ????
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T15:00:04Z

Apinto2: /* Recent Past Tense - Witnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: receive
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive ????
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:56:15Z

Apinto2: /* Remote Past Tense - Witnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: receive
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive ????
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:53:30Z

Apinto2: /* Past Imperfective Tense */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: receive
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive ????
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:50:57Z

Apinto2: /* Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : receive
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive ????
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:47:39Z

Apinto2: /* Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: lead

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:44:40Z

Apinto2: /* Potential Future */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: pour

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}: run
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}: buy
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}: sense
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}: sleep

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:42:26Z

Apinto2: /* Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»: receive
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»: read
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»: pour

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:34:44Z

Apinto2: /* Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»: to drin
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:33:52Z

Apinto2: /* Past Imperfective Tense */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}: run
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}: drink
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}: to fry
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}: read
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}: to feel
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}: to sell
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}: to sleep
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}: to happen
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}: to inflate

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:30:08Z

Apinto2: /* Remote Past Tense - Witnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»: to drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-и»: to receive
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»: to throw
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-» : to read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»: to pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-» : to strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»: to lead

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:24:43Z

Apinto2: /* Recent Past Tense - Witnessed */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»: hit
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»: read
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»: pour
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»: hit, strike
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»" lead

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:22:02Z

Apinto2: /* Present Perfect Tense */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-» : hit
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» :
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-» : get
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-» : read
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-» : throw

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:20:44Z

Apinto2: /* Present Perfect Tense */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-» : drink
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь» : hit
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:16:08Z

Apinto2: /* Examples */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}} : to drink
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:09:36Z

Apinto2: /* Examples */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}} to run
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:08:08Z

Apinto2: /* Case */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}} :
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:06:52Z

Apinto2: /* Irregular */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}: person, people

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:05:43Z

Apinto2: /* Irregular */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}: girl, girls
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}:

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:05:05Z

Apinto2: /* Plural for PropN */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}} : Satujevs

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:04:08Z

Apinto2: /* Plural for PropN */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}}

===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:03:06Z

Apinto2: /* Exceptions */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}: mountainer(s)
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}: leaf, leaves
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»: bush(es)

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}}
===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Grammar

2019-02-19T14:01:23Z

Apinto2: /* Regular change */

==Main Parts of Speech in Chechen==
===Noun===
Noun {{tag|n}}
====Noun Class====
We use the "six noun-classes" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner here <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.
*v.class {{tag|vc}} :all ''v.class'' nouns are masculine, including all biologically masculine nouns.
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*j.class {{tag|jc}} :it includes all biologically feminine animate nouns and many load words from Russian.
:*йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "girl"
*j.class II {{tag|jc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*пхьагал{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "rabbit"
*d.class {{tag|dc}} :it includes all the most common nouns and are used for the citation form of the classed adjectives and classed verbs in Chechen dictionaries, also including
:*наж{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "oak"
*b.class {{tag|bc}} :idiosyncratic
:*малх{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "sun"
*b.class II {{tag|bc2}} :idiosyncratic
:*Ӏаж{{tag|n}}{{tag|bc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "apple"

{{comment|I might use something more like {{tag|cl_v}} etc for clarity, though it's not that important. -JNW}}

====Number Feature====
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*кӏант{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "boy"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*кӏантий{{tag|n}}{{tag|vc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "boys"

====Case====
We use the "ten case" distinction from ''A Grammar of Chechen'' by Zura Dotton & John Wagner as well <ref>https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf</ref>.

*Absolutive case {{tag|abs}} : uninflected form or citation form
:*лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "lion"
*Ergative case {{tag|erg}} : mark the subject of a transitive verb
:*лоьман{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
*Genitive case {{tag|gen}} : mark the possessor of another object
:*лоьмана{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
*Dative case {{tag|dat}} : mark recipient of an action or the indirect object and thematic experiencer of a given verb
:*лоьмо{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
*Allative case {{tag|all}} : describe the goal or destination of a given verb, theme of a transitive causative verb and the subject of a verb in potential mood.
:*лоьме{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
*Instrumental case {{tag|ins}} : mark the instrument of a given verb
:*лоьмаца{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
*Lative case {{tag|lat}} : denote the source or origin of an action or other nouns, topic or theme of certain verbs and cause or reason of an event.
:*лоьмехь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
*Comparative case {{tag|cmp}} : exclusively frame a comparative statement
:*лоьмал{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
*Inessive case {{tag|ine}} : describe static location
:*лоьмахь{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
*Ablative case {{tag|abl}} : denote the physical source or direction of a given verb
:*лоьмара{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}

*Oblique Case {{tag|obl}}: all other cases except the absolutive one

===PropNoun===
PropNoun{{tag|np}}

===Pronoun===
Pronoun {{tag|prn}}

====Personal Pronoun {{tag|pers}}====
Number Feature
*Singular {{tag|sg}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*Plural {{tag|pl}}
:*шу{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abs}} "you(plural)"
Person Feature
*1st person {{tag|p1}}
:*со{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
*2nd person {{tag|p2}}
:*хьо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "you(singular)"
*3rd person {{tag|p3}}
:*иза{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "he/she/it"
Case Feature
* See the case section in noun category.
:*со{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}} "I"
:*сан{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}
:*суна{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}
:*ас{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}
:*сох{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}
:*сол{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}
:*соьга{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}
:*соьгахь{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}
:*соьца{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}
{{comment|I would use the same lemma for each of these, e.g. со.}}

Additional Feature
:Only in 1st person plural:
:*inclusive {{tag|inc}}
:*тхо{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|inc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(inclusive)"
:*exclusive {{tag|exc}}
:*вай{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|exc}}{{tag|abs}} "we(exclusive)"

====Demonstrative Pronoun {{tag|dem}}====
Deictic Feature
*proximal {{tag|prx}}
:*хӏара{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|sg}} "this"
*distal {{tag|dst}}
:*дІораниг{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|sg}} "that"
====Interrogative Pronoun {{tag|itg}}====
*мила{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|abs}} "who(m)"

===Verb===
Verb {{tag|v}}

====Transitivity====
* Transitive {{tag|tv}}
* Intransitive {{tag|iv}}

====Tense====
* Present {{tag|pres}}
* Past {{tag|past}}
* Future {{tag|fut}}
:* Potential Future {{tag|ptn}}
:* Compound Future: the most widely used future tense and therefore we do not assign another tag for it.
:* Future Continuous: actually using participle

====Aspect====
* Imperfective {{tag|imf}}
* Perfective {{tag|pf}}

*Progressive {{tag|prog}}

*Recent {{tag|rec}}
*Remote {{tag|rem}}

====Mood====
*Imperative {{tag|imp}}
:*Polite imperative {{tag|plt}}
:*Immediate imperative {{tag|imd}}
:*Tasked imperative {{tag|tsk}}
:*Categorical imperative {{tag|ctg}}
*Causative {{tag|caus}}

====Evidentiality====
*Witnessed {{tag|wit}}
*Unwitnessed {{tag|uwit}}

====Other Verb forms====
* Masdar {{tag|dnm}}: verbal denominal
:*Case & Number
*Relative Clausal Participles {{tag|rcp}} : verb form used to modify
**Tense: See tense section in verb category

====Examples====
*дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}
*малуш{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}
*мелла{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}
*мели{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}
*додур{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}
*оьцун{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rcp}}

===Postposition===
Postposition {{tag|post}}
*хьалха{{tag|post}} "before, in front of"

===Adjective===
Adjectives {{tag|adj}}

====Qualitative (standard) adj====
the most common adj type and therefore do not assign tag separately
*дика{{tag|adj}}
====Relative adj====
*It has the same morphological form as above and therefore do not have separate tag as well
====Class adj {{tag|cls}}====
agree in noun-class of the head noun it modifies
*деза{{tag|adj}}{{tag|cls}}{{tag|dc}}
====Comparative adj{{tag|comp}}====
*Extended comparative {{tag|ext}}
:*хазах{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}} "more beautiful"
:*хазахо{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}{{tag|ext}} "much more beautiful"
====Substantivized adj {{tag|sub}}====
*Independent {{tag|idp}}
:* Case & Number
*Dependent {{tag|dp}}
*Examples
:*кӏайниг{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|idp}}{{tag|abs}}{{tag|sg}}
:*кӏайнчу{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sub}}{{tag|dp}}

===Adverb===
Adverbs {{tag|adv}}

*Time {{tag|tmp}}
:*хӏинца{{tag|adv}}{{tag|tmp}} "now"
*Place {{tag|loc}}
:*цигахь{{tag|adv}}{{tag|loc}} "there"
*Manner {{tag|man}}
:*муха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|man}} "how"
*Reason {{tag|rea}}
:*хӏунда{{tag|adv}}{{tag|rea}} "why"
*Quantifying {{tag|quan}}
:*дукха{{tag|adv}}{{tag|quan}} "a lot"
*Descriptive {{tag|des}}
:*дика{{tag|adv}}{{tag|des}} "well"

===Numeral===
Numeral {{tag|num}}
====Cardinal{{tag|car}}====
*4 and its derivatives agree in noun-class with the counted noun when in prenominal form
*1,2,3,4,5 have an absolutive/oblique case distinction
:*цхьаъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|abs}} "one"
:*диъ{{tag|num}}{{tag|car}}{{tag|dc}} "four"

====Ordinal{{tag|ord}}====
*хьалхара{{tag|num}}{{tag|ord}} "first"

==Plural==
Chechen displays two categories for grammatical number: singular {{tag|sg}} and plural {{tag|pl}}.
===Regular change===
*add plural morpheme «-(а)ш» to the augmented base of the noun
:*{{morphTest|кор{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|кораш}} with an augmented base «кор-» : window(s)
:*{{morphTest|гала{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|галнаш}} with an augmented base «гална-» : noodle(s)
*add plural morpheme «-ий» to the augmented base of the noun, which is frequently used for nouns referring to animals, plants, insects and group of people or kinship terms
:*{{morphTest|хьаша{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|хьеший}} with an augmented base «хьеш-»: guest(s)
:*{{morphTest|моз{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|мозий}} with an augmented base «моз-» : fly, flies

===Exceptions===
*add allomorph «-й» to noun ending in the substantivizing suffixes «-ло» «-чо» and «-о»
:*{{morphTest|ламаро{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|ламарой}}
*for nouns ending in «-р», «а» in deleted in «-аш»
:*{{morphTest|патар{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|pl}}|патарш}}
*for nouns ending in historical «-л» «-р», «-аш» triggers gemination of the final «-л» «-р»
:*{{morphTest|кол{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|коьллаш}} with an augmented base «коьл-»

===Plural for PropN===
*add «-гӏар» to refer to a collective group
:*{{morphTest|Сатуев{{tag|np}}{{tag|pl}}|Сатуевгӏар}}
===Irregular===
*{{morphTest|йоӏ{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|pl}}|мехкарий}}
*{{morphTest|стаг{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|pl}}|нах}}

==Case Suffixes==
The main case suffxes used in Chechen include the following:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! case name !! tag !! suffix !! лом "lion"
|-
! Absolutive
| {{tag|abs}} || - || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abs}}|лом}}
|-
! Ergative
| {{tag|erg}} || -н || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|лоьман}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{tag|gen}} || -на || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|лоьмана}}
|-
! Dative
| {{tag|dat}} || -о, -(a)c || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|лоьмо}}
|-
! Allative
| {{tag|all}} || -е, -га || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|лоьме}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{tag|ins}} || -ца || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|лоьмаца}}
|-
! Lative
| {{tag|lat}} || -х || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|lat}}|лоьмехь}}
|-
! Comparative
| {{tag|cmp}} || -л || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|cmp}}|лоьмал}}
|-
! Inessive
| {{tag|ine}} || -ахь || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ine}}|лоьмахь}}
|-
! Ablative
| {{tag|abl}} || -ара || {{morphTest|лом{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|лоьмара}}
|}

{{comment|Are you sure {{tag|sg}} doesn't make more sense after the case tags? Consider the order of the morphemes here (or if sg isn't marked with an overt morpheme, then for {{tag|pl}}).}}

==Ergative Case==
*Usually add «-о» to the augmented base of noun
:* {{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахдашо}} with an augmented base «ахдош-»
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends in a vowel, a buffer consonant «-н» is inserted between the final vowel and the case ending
:* {{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|ахгІайрено}}
*When «-о» is added to a noun that ends with «-a» that is generally unpronounced, «-о» replace «-a».
:*{{morphTest|котама{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|erg}}|котамо}}

==Allative Case==
*Usually add «-гa» to an augmented base with a possibility of a buffer vowel
:*{{morphTest|ахгІайре{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|aхгІайрегa}}
*Add «-e» mainly for Russian load words, masdar verb forms and idiosyncratically determined nouns.
:*{{morphTest|школа{{tag|n}}{{tag|jc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|школе}}
:*{{morphTest|ахдош{{tag|n}}{{tag|dc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|all}}|ахдашe}}

==Simple Present Tense==
Person and number features do not matter in the simple present tense form.
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the simple present tense form, the verb usually goes under '''vowel alternation''' as below:

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|доду}} "run/runs"
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|молу}} "drink/drinks"
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|кхорзу}} "fry/fries"
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|зен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|зоь}} "examine/examines"
:*{{morphTest|лен{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|лоь}} "talk/talks"
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|оьцу}} "buy/buys"
*(u)o -> u(u) / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|тусу}} "feel/feels"
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|духку}} "sell/sells"
*i(i) -> y(y) / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|дуьжу}} "sleep/sleeps"
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pres}}|хуьлу}} "happen/happens"

==Present Perfect Tense==
When the infinite form (citation form) transfers to the present perfect form, it is formed by '''stem vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-нa»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

When stems end in «-л» «-т» «-д» «-х» «-ж», they have geminated stems in stead of an additional suffix «-нa».

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|мелла}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|доьттина}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|даьккхина}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*if «е» «и» in the stem, they do not change:
::ie -> ie / «е» does not change; i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|дешна}} with the stem «деш-»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pf}}|деттина}} with the stem «детт-»

==Recent Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by '''vowel alternation''' and the addition of suffix '''«-и»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|мели}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхи}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|дийтти}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|деши}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|доьтти}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхи}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|wit}}|диги}} with the stem «диг-»

==Remote Past Tense - Witnessed==
It is formed by the '''same alternation as above''' but with a different suffix '''«-ира»'''.

*aa -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|мелира}} with the stem «мел-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|даьккхира}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ii / «е» turns into «ий»
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дийттира}} with the stem «дийтт-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change (environment that triggers the difference remains unknown)
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дешира}} with the stem «деш-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|доьттира}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*uo -> yy / «о» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|тоха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|туьхира}} with the stem «туьх-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|rem}}{{tag|wit}}|дигира}} with the stem «диг-»

==Past Imperfective Tense==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|додура}}
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|молура}}
:*{{morphTest|кхарза{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|кхорзура}}
*ie -> oe / «е» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|доьшура}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|тусура}}
:*{{morphTest|дохка{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|духкура}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дуьжура}}
:*{{morphTest|хила{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|хуьлура}}
*u -> u / «у»does not change
:*{{morphTest|дула{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|imp}}|дулура}}

==Past Perfect Tense - Unwitnessed==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-рa»''' to the '''present perfective form''', in which «-на-» turns into '''«-не-»'''.

When stem ends with a geminate consonant, a buffer vowel «-и» is inserted between the stem and suffix.

*a -> e / «a» turns into «е»
:*{{morphTest|мала{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|мелнера}} with the stem «мел-»
*o -> oe / «о» turns into «оь»
:*{{morphTest|дотта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|доьттинера}} with the stem «доьтт-»
*a -> ae / «a» turns into «аь»
:*{{morphTest|даккха{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|даьккхинера}} with the stem «даьккх-»
*ie -> ie / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|деша{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дешнера}} with the stem «деш-»
*e -> ii / «е» does not change
:*{{morphTest|детта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|деттинера}} with the stem «детт-»
*i -> i / «и» does not change
:*{{morphTest|дига{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|uwit}}|дигнера}} with the stem «диг-»

==Potential Future==
It is formed by adding suffix '''«-р»''' to the '''simple present tense forms'''.

*«a» turns into «у» directly when «a» is word-final

*a -> o / «a» turns into «o»
:*{{morphTest|дада{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|додур}}
*ie -> oe / «е» or «э» turns into «oь»
:*{{morphTest|эца{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|оьцур}}
*o -> u / «о» turns into «у»
:*{{morphTest|тоса{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|тусу}}
*i -> y / «и» turns into «уь»
:*{{morphTest|дижа{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|ptn}}|дуьжу}}

{{comment|Is person/number not marked on any tenses?}}

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
[[Category:Chechen]]

Chechen/Keyboard

2019-01-31T16:11:12Z

Apinto2: Created page with "Keyboard Layouts Chechen External Resources Computational Resources Spell Checker https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/chechen-noxchi-spell-checker/ A..."

[[Keyboard Layouts]]

[[Chechen]]

[[External Resources]]

Computational Resources
Spell Checker
https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/chechen-noxchi-spell-checker/
A spell check of Chechen language which is an add-on for Firefox
This Software is copyrighted MibAX 2014. [2]
Keyboard Layout
https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/chechen.htm
A keyboard layout in Cyrillic alphabet
Machine Translator
http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~chechen/chdictionaries.html
An online English-Chechen/Chechen-English dictionary (in Latin alphabet) that is based on a database of a project
Copyright Johanna Nichols 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001. You may not print or copy (electronically or otherwise) this lexicon or any part of it without permission.
https://e-chechnya.ru/slovar
An online Chechen-Russian dictionary
Cannot find license info
https://glosbe.com/en/ce/
An online English-Chechen dictionary (in Cyrillic alphabet)
Currently has 2,334 phrases translated and 24 sentences translated
Also contains transliteration
Dictionaries
http://erwinkomen.ruhosting.nl/che/dict/lexicon/main.htm
An online dictionary with Russian or English explanations
Cannot find license info
http://mott.vvvay.net/chech/dict.htm
An scanned copy of Chechen-Russian dictionary (in Cyrillic alphabet)
http://mott.vvvay.net/chech/awde/
An scanned copy of Chechen-Russian dictionary (in Latin alphabet) and phrasebook
Grammartical Description
https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/chechen-grammar.original.pdf
A Grammar of Chechen by Zura Dotton & John Wagner
http://mott.vvvay.net/chech/book/
A scanned copy of Indigenous language of the Caucasus (Chechen) by Johanna Nichols

Scientific Work
http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/komen_2007_focusinchechen-ma.pdf
Linguistic studies about the Chechen language Focus in Chechen, by Erwin Komen
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1024997718758
Pluractionality in Chechen by Alan C. L. Yu
Corpora
http://ibtrussia.org/en/ebook?id=CHE
A Chechen translation of The New Testament
There are 208,792 articles in Wikipedia in Chechen language available. [3]

References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language
https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/chechen-noxchi-spell-checker/license/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias#Detailed_list

[[Developed Resources]]

[[Existing Resources]]

http://www.chrismary.com/languagekeyboard/keyboards/chechen_keyboard_(cyrillic).jpg

User:Apinto2/Documenting Resources

2019-01-28T15:06:06Z

Apinto2: Created page with " == Primary texts == ONLINELe poirier de la forêt. Guérin, Françoise (researcher); Guérin, Françoise (annotator); Betelgueriev Hussein (speaker); Guérin, Françoise..."

== Primary texts ==

ONLINELe poirier de la forêt. Guérin, Françoise (researcher); Guérin, Françoise (annotator); Betelgueriev Hussein (speaker); Guérin, Françoise (depositor). 2018. Laboratoire de langues et civilisations à tradition orale. oai:crdo.vjf.cnrs.fr:cocoon-69f9c6cc-9862-3ccd-be75-c67d81bf5ab6
ONLINELe poirier de la forêt. Guérin, Françoise (researcher); Guérin, Françoise (recorder); Betelgueriev Hussein (speaker); Guérin, Françoise (depositor). 2018. Laboratoire de langues et civilisations à tradition orale. oai:crdo.vjf.cnrs.fr:cocoon-f0eff03b-9d65-37dd-9175-e1a21de5e6c8
Lexical resources

== Lexical Resources ==

ONLINECrúbadán language data for Chechen. Kevin Scannell. 2018. The Crúbadán Project. oai:crubadan.org:ce
Chechensko-russkii slovar : Okolo 20 000 slov. S prilozheniem kratkogo grammaticheskogo ocherka chechenskogo iazyka. Matsiev, Akhmat Gekhaevich. 1961. Moskva : Gos. izd-vo inostrannykh i natsionalnykh slovarei. oai:gial.edu:25453
ONLINEChechen Swadesh List. n.a. n.d. The Rosetta Project: A Long Now Foundation Library of Human Language. oai:rosettaproject.org:rosettaproject_che_swadesh-1
Language descriptions

== Language Descriptions ==

ONLINEGlottolog 3.3 Resources for Chechen. n.a. 2018. Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. oai:glottolog.org:chec1245
ONLINEPHOIBLE Online phonemic inventories for Chechen. n.a. 2014. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. oai:phoible.org:che
ONLINECompendium of the World's Languages. Campbell, George L. 2000. Routledge. oai:rosettaproject.org:rosettaproject_che_morsyn-1
ONLINEFinding Focus: a study of the historical development of focus in English. Komen, Erwin R. 2013. LOT. oai:sil.org:53602
ONLINEWALS Online Resources for Chechen. n.a. 2008. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. oai:wals.info:chc
Other resources about the language

== Other Resources about the language ==

ONLINEChechen Phonology. Nichols, Johanna. 1997. Phonologies of Asia and Africa 2. oai:refdb.wals.info:1113
ONLINEChechenskij jazyk. Desheriev, Junus Desherievich. 1967. Jazyki narodov SSSR. Volume 4: Iberijsko-kavkazskie jazyki. oai:refdb.wals.info:2278
ONLINEChechen. Nichols, J. 1994. The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus 4. oai:refdb.wals.info:2618
ONLINELinguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Nichols, Johanna. 1992. University of Chicago Press. oai:refdb.wals.info:4050
ONLINECoordination in Chechen. Jeschull, Liane. 2004. Coordinating Constructions. oai:refdb.wals.info:4254
ONLINEChechenskij jazyk. Aliroev, Ibragim Junusovich. 1997. Academia. oai:refdb.wals.info:4914
ONLINESintakisis ch�ech�enskogo literaturnogo jazyka. F., Jakovlev N. 1940. Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR. oai:refdb.wals.info:4931
ONLINEEnglish-Chechen / Chechen-English Online Dictionary. Digaev, A. 2002. WALS Online RefDB. oai:refdb.wals.info:5656
"The north wind and the sun" in Cecen. Hewitt, B. G. (Brian George). 1978. Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Library. oai:gial.edu:10271
ONLINEChechen stress and vowel deletion: an optimality theory approach. Komen, Erwin R. 2007. SIL Language and Culture Archives. oai:sil.org:3407
ONLINEChechen vowel inventory. Komen, Erwin R. 2007. Leiden working papers in linguistics. oai:sil.org:1781
ONLINEFocus in Chechen. Komen, Erwin R. 2007. SIL Language and Culture Archives. oai:sil.org:9587
ONLINEold Chechen songs 2. Zarina Molochieva; Xizhan; Alman. 2007-09-10. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202910
ONLINEhospitality in the past. Zarina Molochieva; Xizhan; Alman. 2007-09-03. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202912
ONLINEtelling stories from the past. Zarina Molochieva; Alman; Xizhan. 2007-09-24. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202918
ONLINEold Chechen songs. Zarina Molochieva; Xizhan; Alman. 2007-09-07. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202914
ONLINEold Chechen songs; poems. Zarina Molochieva; Xizhan. 2007-09-07. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202916
ONLINEold Chechen songs; taking pictures; choosing scarves. Zarina Molochieva; Xizhan; Alman. 2007-09-24. Zarina Molochieva. oai:soas.ac.uk:MPI1202908
ONLINECompendium of the World's Languages. Campbell, George L. 2000. Routledge. oai:rosettaproject.org:rosettaproject_che_number-1
ONLINEChechen: a language of Russian Federation. n.a. 2018. SIL International. oai:ethnologue.com:che
ONLINELINGUIST List Resources for Chechen. Damir Cavar, eLinguistics Foundation Board Member (editor); Malgorzata E. Cavar, Director of Linguist List (editor). 2019-01-27. The LINGUIST List (www.linguistlist.org). oai:linguistlist.org:lang_che

== Other Resources in the Language ==

Cheyenne texts : an introduction to Cheyenne literature. Leman, Wayne. 1980. Eastlake, Colo. : Summer Institute of Linguistics. oai:gial.edu:1367
ONLINEPlaintext Wikipedia dump 2018. Rosa, Rudolf. 2018. Charles University, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Institute of Formal and Applied Linguistics (UFAL). oai:lindat.mff.cuni.cz:11234/1-2735

Source: http://www.language-archives.org/language/che

[[sp19_ResourceDocumentation]]
[[sp19_Chechen]]

Chechen

2019-01-24T14:51:03Z

Apinto2: Created page with "General Machine Translation Machine transliteration Morphological transducers Dictionaries and Phrasebooks"

General

Machine Translation

Machine transliteration

Morphological transducers

Dictionaries and Phrasebooks

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-23T14:26:58Z

Apinto2: /* Ladino : (A language of Israel) */

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

=== Ladino : (A language of Israel) ===

* ISO 639-3 : lad
* Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol
* Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.
* Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.
* Language Status : 4 (Educational).
* Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian
* Dialects : The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].
* Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].
* Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.
* Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino
* Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.
Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

Morphology: In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings /-im/ and /-ot/ are used with Hebrew loanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish: ladrón/ladronim (thief) (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Morphology)

'''2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic : A language of Israel'''

*ISO 639-3 : yhd
*Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
*Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
*Location : Scattered.
*Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
*Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
*Dialects: A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
*Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
*Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
(Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd)

Potential for finding texts: There are Bible translations and the Israeli film Farewell Baghdad (2014) was performed mostly in this dialect. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic#Phonology)

'''3. Cajun, French : (A language of United States)'''

*ISO 639-3 : frc
*Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
*Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
*Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
*Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
*Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
*Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
*Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
*Writing : Latin script [Latn].
*Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.
Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

Morphology: It is very close to "Standard French". However; there are differences in syntax which come from 17th century French (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French#Radio).

[[Category:Ladino]]
[[Category:sp19_LanguageSelection]]
[[Category: Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]]
[[Category: Cajun, French]]

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-23T14:24:52Z

Apinto2: /* Ladino : (A language of Israel) */

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

=== Ladino : (A language of Israel) ===

* ISO 639-3 : lad
* Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol
* Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.
* Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.
* Language Status : 4 (Educational).
* Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian
* Dialects : The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].
* Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].
* Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.
* Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino
* Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.
Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

Morphology: In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings /-im/ and /-ot/ are used with Hebrew loanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish: ladrón/ladron (thief) (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Morphology)

'''2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic : A language of Israel'''

*ISO 639-3 : yhd
*Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
*Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
*Location : Scattered.
*Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
*Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
*Dialects: A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
*Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
*Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
(Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd)

Potential for finding texts: There are Bible translations and the Israeli film Farewell Baghdad (2014) was performed mostly in this dialect. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic#Phonology)

'''3. Cajun, French : (A language of United States)'''

*ISO 639-3 : frc
*Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
*Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
*Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
*Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
*Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
*Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
*Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
*Writing : Latin script [Latn].
*Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.
Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

Morphology: It is very close to "Standard French". However; there are differences in syntax which come from 17th century French (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French#Radio).

[[Category:Ladino]]
[[Category:sp19_LanguageSelection]]
[[Category: Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]]
[[Category: Cajun, French]]

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-22T22:53:10Z

Apinto2:

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

[[Category:Ladino]]

'''1. Ladino : (A language of Israel)'''

ISO 639-3 : lad

Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol

Autonym : גﬞודיאו־איספאנייול‎ (Djudeo-espanyol), לאדינו‎ (Ladino)

Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.

Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.

Language Status : 4 (Educational).

Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian

Dialects : Judezmo (Dzhudezmo, Jidyo, Judyo), Ladino, Haquetiya (Haketia, Haketiya, Hakitia). The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].

Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].

Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.

Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino

Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.

Other Comments : The name Dzhudezmo is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews, Judeo-Spanish by Romance philologists, Ladino by laymen (especially in Israel), Hakitia by Moroccan Jews, Spanyol by some others. Different from Ladin [lld] in the Rhaeto-Romansch group. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

'''2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic : A language of Israel'''

ISO 639-3 : yhd

Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic

Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.

Location : Scattered.

Language Status : 7 (Shifting).

Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

Dialects: None known. Reportedly not intelligible with Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic [yud], Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt], or Judeo-Moroccan Arabic [aju]. Reportedly similar to Baghdadi Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic [acm]. A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].

Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].

Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi

Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].

Other Comments : The term Yahudic is used by a few scholars to denote all Judeo-Arabic languages. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd

'''3. Cajun, French : (A language of United States)'''

ISO 639-3 : frc

Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French

Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.

Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.

Language Maps : Southeastern United States of America

Language Status : 7 (Shifting).

Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French

Dialects : Marsh French, Prairie French, Big Woods French. Reportedly Cajun speakers can partially understand standard French [fra].

Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].

Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.

Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about French, Cajun

Writing : Latin script [Latn].

Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-22T22:50:49Z

Apinto2:

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

[[Category:Ladino]]

1. Ladino : A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : lad

Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol

Autonym : גﬞודיאו־איספאנייול‎ (Djudeo-espanyol), לאדינו‎ (Ladino)

Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.

Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.

Language Status : 4 (Educational).

Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian

Dialects : Judezmo (Dzhudezmo, Jidyo, Judyo), Ladino, Haquetiya (Haketia, Haketiya, Hakitia). The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].

Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].

Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.

Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino

Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.

Other Comments : The name Dzhudezmo is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews, Judeo-Spanish by Romance philologists, Ladino by laymen (especially in Israel), Hakitia by Moroccan Jews, Spanyol by some others. Different from Ladin [lld] in the Rhaeto-Romansch group. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic : A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : yhd

Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
Location : Scattered.
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
Dialects: None known. Reportedly not intelligible with Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic [yud], Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt], or Judeo-Moroccan Arabic [aju]. Reportedly similar to Baghdadi Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic [acm]. A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi
Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
Other Comments : The term Yahudic is used by a few scholars to denote all Judeo-Arabic languages. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd

3. Cajun, French

A language of United States

ISO 639-3 : frc
Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
Language Maps : Southeastern United States of America
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
Dialects : Marsh French, Prairie French, Big Woods French. Reportedly Cajun speakers can partially understand standard French [fra].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about French, Cajun
Writing : Latin script [Latn].
Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-22T22:49:12Z

Apinto2:

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

[[Category:Ladino]]

1. Ladino

A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : lad
Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol
Autonym : גﬞודיאו־איספאנייול‎ (Djudeo-espanyol), לאדינו‎ (Ladino)
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.
Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.
Language Status : 4 (Educational).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian
Dialects : Judezmo (Dzhudezmo, Jidyo, Judyo), Ladino, Haquetiya (Haketia, Haketiya, Hakitia). The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].
Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino
Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.
Other Comments : The name Dzhudezmo is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews, Judeo-Spanish by Romance philologists, Ladino by laymen (especially in Israel), Hakitia by Moroccan Jews, Spanyol by some others. Different from Ladin [lld] in the Rhaeto-Romansch group. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic

A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : yhd
Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
Location : Scattered.
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
Dialects: None known. Reportedly not intelligible with Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic [yud], Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt], or Judeo-Moroccan Arabic [aju]. Reportedly similar to Baghdadi Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic [acm]. A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi
Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
Other Comments : The term Yahudic is used by a few scholars to denote all Judeo-Arabic languages. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd

3. Cajun, French

A language of United States

ISO 639-3 : frc
Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
Language Maps : Southeastern United States of America
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
Dialects : Marsh French, Prairie French, Big Woods French. Reportedly Cajun speakers can partially understand standard French [fra].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about French, Cajun
Writing : Latin script [Latn].
Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-22T22:47:30Z

Apinto2:

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

[[Category:Ladino]]

1. Ladino

A language of Israel
ISO 639-3 : lad
Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol
Autonym : גﬞודיאו־איספאנייול‎ (Djudeo-espanyol), לאדינו‎ (Ladino)
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.
Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.
Language Status : 4 (Educational).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian
Dialects : Judezmo (Dzhudezmo, Jidyo, Judyo), Ladino, Haquetiya (Haketia, Haketiya, Hakitia). The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].
Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino
Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.
Other Comments : The name Dzhudezmo is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews, Judeo-Spanish by Romance philologists, Ladino by laymen (especially in Israel), Hakitia by Moroccan Jews, Spanyol by some others. Different from Ladin [lld] in the Rhaeto-Romansch group. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

2. Judeo-Iraqi Arabic

A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : yhd
Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
Location : Scattered.
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
Dialects: None known. Reportedly not intelligible with Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic [yud], Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt], or Judeo-Moroccan Arabic [aju]. Reportedly similar to Baghdadi Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic [acm]. A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi
Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
Other Comments : The term Yahudic is used by a few scholars to denote all Judeo-Arabic languages. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd

3. Cajun, French

A language of United States

ISO 639-3 : frc
Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
Language Maps : Southeastern United States of America
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
Dialects : Marsh French, Prairie French, Big Woods French. Reportedly Cajun speakers can partially understand standard French [fra].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about French, Cajun
Writing : Latin script [Latn].
Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

User:Apinto2/Language selection

2019-01-22T22:46:14Z

Apinto2: Created page with "I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers. The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French) Categ..."

I am interested in working with someone who is good with computers.

The languages I am interested in working on are: Ladino, Judeo-Iraqi and Cajun (Louisiana French)

[[Category:Ladino]]

1. Typology

Ladino (also known as Judaeo-Spanish) is a Romance language derived from Old Spanish. It was the language of Sephardic Jews, spoken in the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa. It has a strong Hebrew influence.

2. Morphology

• In verbs, the preterite indicates that an action taken once in the past was also completed at some point in the past. That is as opposed to the imperfect, which refers to any continuous, habitual, unfinished or repetitive past action. Thus, "I ate falafel yesterday" would use the first-person preterite form of eat, comí/komí but "When I lived in Izmir, I ran five miles every evening" would use the first-person imperfect form, corría/koria. Though some of the morphology has changed, usage is just as in normative Spanish.
• In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings /-im/ and /-ot/ are used with Hebrew loanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish: ladrón/ladron (thief): ladrones, ladronimm; hermano/ermano(brother): hermanos/hermanim / ermanos/ermanim. [23] Similarly, some loaned feminine nouns ending in -á can take either the Spanish or Hebrew plural: quehilá/keilá (synagogue): quehilás/quehilot / keilas/keilot.
• Judaeo-Spanish contains more gendering cases than standard Spanish, prominently in adjectives, (grande/-a, inferior/-ra) as well as in nouns (vozas, fuentas) and in the interrogative qualo/quala / kualo/kuala.[21)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Morphology

3. About

A language of Israel
ISO 639-3 : lad
Alternate Names : Judeo Spanish, Judeo-Espagnol, Sefardi, Sephardic, Spanyol
Autonym : גﬞודיאו־איספאנייול‎ (Djudeo-espanyol), לאדינו‎ (Ladino)
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 137,000.
Location : Jerusalem district and scattered.
Language Status : 4 (Educational).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian
Dialects : Judezmo (Dzhudezmo, Jidyo, Judyo), Ladino, Haquetiya (Haketia, Haketiya, Hakitia). The Balkan dialect is more influenced by Turkish [tur] and Greek [ell]. The North African dialect is more influenced by Arabic [arb]and French [fra].
Language Use : Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Development : New Media. Newspapers. Radio. Bible: 1829.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Ladino
Writing : Cyrillic script [Cyrl], used by Sephardic speakers in the Balkans. Hebrew script [Hebr]. Latin script [Latn], used in Turkey.
Other Comments : The name Dzhudezmo is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews, Judeo-Spanish by Romance philologists, Ladino by laymen (especially in Israel), Hakitia by Moroccan Jews, Spanyol by some others. Different from Ladin [lld] in the Rhaeto-Romansch group. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lad

[[Category: Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]]

A language of Israel

ISO 639-3 : yhd
Alternate Names : Iraqi Judeo-Arabic, Jewish Iraqi-Baghdadi Arabic, Yahudic
Population : 125,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 125,120.
Location : Scattered.
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic
Dialects: None known. Reportedly not intelligible with Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic [yud], Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt], or Judeo-Moroccan Arabic [aju]. Reportedly similar to Baghdadi Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic [acm]. A member of macrolanguage Judeo-Arabic [jrb].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use Hebrew [heb].
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi
Writing : Hebrew script [Hebr].
Other Comments : The term Yahudic is used by a few scholars to denote all Judeo-Arabic languages. Jewish.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yhd

[[Category: French, Cajun]]

A language of United States

ISO 639-3 : frc
Alternate Names : Acadian, Cadien, Cajan, Cajun, Louisiana French
Population : 21,300 (2015 census), decreasing.
Location : Louisiana: west of the Mississippi to Allen, Avoyelles, Calcasieu, and Evangeline parishes; Texas: small border area west of Sabine river, east of Beaumont.
Language Maps : Southeastern United States of America
Language Status : 7 (Shifting).
Classification : Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French
Dialects : Marsh French, Prairie French, Big Woods French. Reportedly Cajun speakers can partially understand standard French [fra].
Language Use : Mainly older adults. Also use English [eng]. Used as L2 by Koasati [cku].
Language Development: Literacy rate in L2: 60% in English [eng], 0% in French [fra]. Textbooks in Cajun, translations of some classics. Radio. Dictionary. Grammar.
Language Resources : OLAC resources in and about French, Cajun
Writing : Latin script [Latn].
Other Comments : Ancestors came from French Canada in the 18th century. Christian.

Source: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frc

User:Apinto2

2019-01-22T22:23:22Z

Apinto2: Blanked the page

User:Apinto2

2019-01-22T13:59:30Z

Apinto2: Created page with "Arielle Pinto (Haverford College), senior I am interested in Judeo-Tat or Neo-Aramaic for this class. I also speak French and Spanish. Category:sp19_students"

Arielle Pinto (Haverford College), senior

I am interested in Judeo-Tat or Neo-Aramaic for this class. I also speak French and Spanish.

[[Category:sp19_students]]