LING073 - User contributions [en]

Rungus and English/Structural Transfer

2025-05-07T01:06:21Z

Cliu1:

==Pre-Evaluation==

* WER: 82.35%
* PER: 82.35%

==Structural Transfer==

===Word Order===

* (drg) Momobog ko dialo → (eng) You hit him
** Tagger: ^Bobog<v><impf><af>$ ^ko<prn><pers><p2><sg><nom>$ ^dialo<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc>$^.<sent>$
** Lex: ^Bobog<v><impf><af>/Hit<v><impf><af>$ ^ko<prn><pers><p2><sg><nom>/you<prn><pers><p2><sg><nom>$ ^dialo<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc>/him<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc>/her<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
** Transfer: ^you<prn><pers><p2><sg><nom>$ ^Hit<v><impf><af>$ ^him<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc>$^.<sent>$
** drg-eng: #you #Hit #him

==Post-Evaluation==

* Coverage: 48/48 (1)

===Statistics about input files===
* Number of words in reference: 44
* Number of words in test: 38
* Number of unknown words (marked with a star) in test: 0
* Percentage of unknown words: 0.00 %

===Results when removing unknown-word marks (stars)===
* Edit distance: 37
* Word error rate (WER): 84.09 %
* Number of position-independent correct words: 9
* Position-independent word error rate (PER): 79.55 %

[[Category:Sp25_StructuralTransfer]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T22:32:56Z

Cliu1: /* Nominal/adjectival predicates */

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO (can be seen in all other examples as well)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked (also see the word order example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Manangon tokou di Kurudong|We tell Kurudong stories}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tangon{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}{{tag|nom}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} Kurudong{{tag|np}} | we{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|pl}} tell{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} Kurudong{{tag|np}} stories{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the second actor focus example and the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners) without requiring copulas; English nouns and adjectives require copulas
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T22:22:40Z

Cliu1:

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO (can be seen in all other examples as well)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked (also see the word order example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Manangon tokou di Kurudong|We tell Kurudong stories}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tangon{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}{{tag|nom}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} Kurudong{{tag|np}} | we{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|pl}} tell{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} Kurudong{{tag|np}} stories{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the second actor focus example and the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas.
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T22:06:56Z

Cliu1: /* Actor focus */

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO (can be seen in all other examples as well)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked (also see the word order example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas.
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T22:06:18Z

Cliu1: /* Word order */

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO (can be seen in all other examples as well)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas.
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T21:26:30Z

Cliu1: /* Nominal/adjectival predicates */

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas.
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T21:26:13Z

Cliu1:

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Nominal/adjectival predicates ==
Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas.
Noun:
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Ulun oku|I am a person}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|ulun{{tag|n}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Adjective:
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Agazo ialo|He is big}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|agazo{{tag|adj}} ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|emph}} | he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} big{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T20:57:43Z

Cliu1:

== Word order ==
Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T20:57:04Z

Cliu1: /* Determiners */

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T20:56:09Z

Cliu1: /* Determiners */

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
* {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T20:55:54Z

Cliu1:

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}
{{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} ulun{{tag|n}} di{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} tagad{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T18:16:28Z

Cliu1: /* Possessive pronouns */

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T18:16:10Z

Cliu1: /* Possessive pronouns */

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code> (also see the second determiner example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T18:14:18Z

Cliu1: /* Determiners */

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku|My ricefield has been made for me by people}}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code>
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T18:06:50Z

Cliu1:

== Word order ==
* Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Momobog ko dialo|You hit him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|bobog{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} hit{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== Focus morphology ==

=== Actor focus ===
* Rungus marks actor focus on the verb <code>af</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* Rungus marks patient focus on the verb <code>pf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb <code>pp</code> and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb <code>bf</code>, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

== Determiners ==
* In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as <code>nom</code>) or non-focused (tagged as <code>acc</code>); this has no direct equivalence in English
* Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (see the beneficiary focus example)
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Possessive pronouns ==
* Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns <code>gen</code>; English expresses possession with possessive determiners <code>pos</code>
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangatag oku di jiip ku|I repair my jeep}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|atag{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}} jiip{{tag|n}} ku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}}} repair{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}} my{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sg}} jeep{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T17:45:39Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:41:37Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:41:18Z

Cliu1: /* Determiner agreement */

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:41:00Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:35:17Z

Cliu1: /* Focus morphology */

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:32:20Z

Cliu1: /* Focus morphology */

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:31:22Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-24T16:28:54Z

Cliu1: /* Grammatical Differences */

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T16:17:46Z

Cliu1: /* Patient focus */

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
* Verbal morphology / aspect: aspect in Rungus is marked as verbal affixes

=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T16:16:58Z

Cliu1: /* Beneficiary focus */

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
* Verbal morphology / aspect: aspect in Rungus is marked as verbal affixes

=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T16:16:41Z

Cliu1: /* Beneficiary focus */

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
* Verbal morphology / aspect: aspect in Rungus is marked as verbal affixes

=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|vol}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T16:03:18Z

Cliu1:

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
* Verbal morphology / aspect: aspect in Rungus is marked as verbal affixes

=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}}<vol> oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T15:43:58Z

Cliu1: /* Grammatical Differences */

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
* Verbal morphology / aspect: aspect in Rungus is marked as verbal affixes

=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T15:38:56Z

Cliu1:

== Grammatical Differences ==
* Word order: Rungus is primarily VSO
* Austronesian alignment: the word order in Rungus is [predicate - focused argument - non-focused argument], and the focus marking on the verb determines the thematic role of the focused argument (e.g., if verb is actor focused, then the focused argument is the actor/agent)
** Determiners and pronouns have focused/non-focused forms (tagged <code>nom</code> and <code>acc</code>)
=== Actor focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Patient focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

=== Beneficiary focus ===
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T15:29:30Z

Cliu1:

== Actor focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Patient focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Beneficiary focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} given{{tag|adj}} necklace{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-22T03:38:59Z

Cliu1:

== Actor focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Patient focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Beneficiary focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|tahak{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}}{{tag|perf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} tinggol{{tag|n}} | }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-17T16:37:23Z

Cliu1:

== Actor focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Patient focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Beneficiary focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Tinahakan oku do tinggol|I was given necklaces}}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-17T16:24:01Z

Cliu1:

== Actor focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

== Patient focus ==
* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Duaton oku dikau|I am asked by you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|pf}} oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}} dikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}} |I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} ask{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}} by{{tag|pr}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-17T16:07:37Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-17T16:02:59Z

Cliu1:

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mamanau it ulun|The person goes}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} it{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} ulun{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} person{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} go{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} }}

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-17T15:53:18Z

Cliu1:

* {{transferTest|drg|eng|Mangagama i tukang do meja|The workman makes a table}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|drg|eng|mangagama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|af}} i{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}} tukang{{tag|n}} do{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}} meja{{tag|n}} |the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} workman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} make{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} table{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} }}

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

2025-04-15T16:38:25Z

Cliu1: Created page with "Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars Category:Rungus Category:English"

[[Category:Sp25_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]

Rungus and English

2025-04-04T20:58:13Z

Cliu1:

Resources for machine translation between [[Rungus]] and [[English]]
==External Resources==
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg-eng Rungus-English repository]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg Rungus transducer repository]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/apertium-eng English transducer repository]

==Rungus→English Evaluation==

Sentence 1:
*Rungus Sentence: It ulun dit opodok ot aasakan, okudik ot oula.
*Intended English: The one who plants a small field (of rice), will also harvest little.
*Lexical Transfer: ^It<det><dem><def><nom>/The<det><dem><def>$ ^ulun<n>/person<n>$ ^dit<det><dem><def><acc>/that<det><dem><def>$ ^opodok<adj>/small<adj>$ ^ot<det><dem><ind><nom>/a<det><dem><ind>$ ^aasakan<n>/paddy field<n>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^okudik<adj>/some<adj>$ ^ot<det><dem><ind><nom>/a<det><dem><ind>$ ^oula<n>/produce<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
*Full Translation: #The #person #that #small #a #paddy field, some #a #produce.

Sentence 2:
*Rungus Sentence: Abahavos iti govuton.
*Intended English: This forest is free of undergrowth.
*Lexical Transfer: ^Abahavos<n>/Forest cleared of undergrowth<n>$ ^iti<prn><dem><prx><nom>/this<prn><dem><prx><nom>$ ^govuton<n>/secondary jungle<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
*Full Translation: #Forest cleared of undergrowth #this #secondary jungle.

Sentence 3:
*Rungus Sentence: Aso abal ong yalo dino kaparu.
*Intended English: No-one is as industrious as him.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Aso<adj>/None<adj>$ ^abal<adj>/same<adj>$ ^ong<cnj>/if<cnj>$ ^yalo<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/he<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/she<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>$ ^dino<prn><dem><dst><acc>/that<prn><dem><dst>$ ^kaparu<adj>/industrious<adj>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #None same #if #he #that industrious.

Sentence 4:
*Rungus Sentence: Oboloti banal ong yalo.
*Intended English: He is really late.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Oboloti<adj>/Slow<adj>$ ^banal<adj>/true<adj>$ ^ong<cnj>/if<cnj>$ ^yalo<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/he<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/she<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #Slow #true #if #he.

Sentence 5:
*Rungus Sentence: Popungo sid abai ino ikam dino nga omomos.
*Intended English: Put the mattress into the loft, then it is tidy.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Popungo<v>/Put<v>$ ^sid<pr>/at<pr>$ ^abai<n>/loft<n>$ ^ino<prn><dem><dst><nom>/that<prn><dem><dst><nom>$ ^ikam<n>/mat<n>$ ^dino<prn><dem><dst><acc>/that<prn><dem><dst>$ ^nga<cnj><coo>/but<cnj><coo>$ ^omomos<adj>/upright<adj>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #Put at #loft #that #mat #that #but upright.

Sentence 6:
*Rungus Sentence: Abangat oku mangakan do sada.
*Intended English: I'm fed up with eating fish.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Abangat<adj>/Fed up<adj>$ ^oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom>/I<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom>$ ^akan<v><tv><impf><af>/eat<v><tv><impf><af>$ ^do<det><dem><ind><acc>/a<det><dem><ind>$ ^sada<n>/fish<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: Fed up #I #eat #a #fish.

Sentence 7:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 8:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 9:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 10:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs]]

Rungus and English

2025-04-04T20:56:42Z

Cliu1: /* Rungus→English Evaluation */

Resources for machine translation between [[Rungus]] and [[English]]
==External Resources==
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg-eng Rungus-English repository]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg Rungus transducer repository]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/apertium-eng English transducer repository]

==Rungus→English Evaluation==

Sentence 1:
*Rungus Sentence: It ulun dit opodok ot aasakan, okudik ot oula.
*Intended English: The one who plants a small field (of rice), will also harvest little.
*Lexical Transfer: ^It<det><dem><def><nom>/The<det><dem><def>$ ^ulun<n>/person<n>$ ^dit<det><dem><def><acc>/that<det><dem><def>$ ^opodok<adj>/small<adj>$ ^ot<det><dem><ind><nom>/a<det><dem><ind>$ ^aasakan<n>/paddy field<n>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^okudik<adj>/some<adj>$ ^ot<det><dem><ind><nom>/a<det><dem><ind>$ ^oula<n>/produce<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
*Full Translation: #The #person #that #small #a #paddy field, some #a #produce.

Sentence 2:
*Rungus Sentence: Abahavos iti govuton.
*Intended English: This forest is free of undergrowth.
*Lexical Transfer: ^Abahavos<n>/Forest cleared of undergrowth<n>$ ^iti<prn><dem><prx><nom>/this<prn><dem><prx><nom>$ ^govuton<n>/secondary jungle<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
*Full Translation: #Forest cleared of undergrowth #this #secondary jungle.

Sentence 3:
*Rungus Sentence: Aso abal ong yalo dino kaparu.
*Intended English: No-one is as industrious as him.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Aso<adj>/None<adj>$ ^abal<adj>/same<adj>$ ^ong<cnj>/if<cnj>$ ^yalo<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/he<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/she<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>$ ^dino<prn><dem><dst><acc>/that<prn><dem><dst>$ ^kaparu<adj>/industrious<adj>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #None same #if #he #that industrious.

Sentence 4:
*Rungus Sentence: Oboloti banal ong yalo.
*Intended English: He is really late.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Oboloti<adj>/Slow<adj>$ ^banal<adj>/true<adj>$ ^ong<cnj>/if<cnj>$ ^yalo<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/he<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>/she<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #Slow #true #if #he.

Sentence 5:
*Rungus Sentence: Popungo sid abai ino ikam dino nga omomos.
*Intended English: Put the mattress into the loft, then it is tidy.
*Lexical Transfer: <nowiki>^Popungo<v>/Put<v>$ ^sid<pr>/at<pr>$ ^abai<n>/loft<n>$ ^ino<prn><dem><dst><nom>/that<prn><dem><dst><nom>$ ^ikam<n>/mat<n>$ ^dino<prn><dem><dst><acc>/that<prn><dem><dst>$ ^nga<cnj><coo>/but<cnj><coo>$ ^omomos<adj>/upright<adj>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</nowiki>
*Full Translation: #Put at #loft #that #mat #that #but upright.

Sentence 6:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 7:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 8:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 9:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

Sentence 10:
*Rungus Sentence:
*Intended English:
*Lexical Transfer:
*Full Translation:

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs]]

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T16:19:09Z

Cliu1:

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T16:17:37Z

Cliu1: /* External Resources */

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T16:02:35Z

Cliu1: /* External Resources */

Rungus

2025-03-27T15:53:37Z

Cliu1: /* Developed Resources */

==About Rungus==
Rungus is a variety of Momogun, an Austronesian language spoken in Sabah, Malaysia. It currently has around 60,000 speakers, including 10,000 monolinguals. The language is threatened and has extremely low digital support.
*[https://www.ethnologue.com/language/drg/ Ethnologue page for Rungus]
**Basic linguistic information
*[https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/rung1259 Glottolog page for Rungus]
**Basic linguistic information and categorization
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momogun_language (Very sparse) Wikipedia page for Momogun, Rungus's autonym]
**Not very helpful. Perhaps we will be able to populate it in the future :)
*[http://www.language-archives.org/language/drg Compilation of various resources]
**OLAC resources about Rungus: wordlists, language data, etc.

==External Resources==
===Computational Resources===
None that we could find.
===Dictionaries/Phrasebooks/Glossaries===
*Appell, G. N., & Appell, L. W. R. (1961). A provisional field dictionary of the Rungus Dusun language of North Borneo.
**Field dictionary made for doing fieldwork with the Rungus people. Requested through ILL (Edit: arrived).
*SIL Global. (2025). Rungus Dictionary. ''Webonary.org.'' [https://www.webonary.org/rungus/browse/browse-vernacular-english/ URL]
**Online dictionary that translates between Rungus, Malay, and English. Has full Rungus phrases translated from Rungus to English as well. The entire site can also be translated into Rungus, which could be really nice.
**Webonary's [https://www.webonary.org/sil-international-terms-of-service-for-webonary-org/ terms of service] seem to allow us to use its data for our purposes. We are allowed to download any content accessible on the website.
*Sokuroh, J.K. (2013). Pu'un do Boros Momogun Rungus Rootwords (Momogun Rungus - English)
**Another Rungus to English dictionary that appears to specify rootwords, which may be helpful. Requested through ILL.

===Grammatical Descriptions===
Appears to be primarily inflectional. Tenses and other words are formed with affixation, whether that be prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. Since Austronesian languages tend to be further on the agglutinative side of things, it's very possible that there is some agglutination happening as well.
*Forschner, T. A. (1994). Hoturan Di Boros Momogun (Rungus) = Outline of a Momogun Grammar (Rungus Dialect). Kudat. [https://www.ebfo.de/rungus/Rungus-Grammar_A4.pdf PDF]
**The main grammar of Rungus we have been able to find. Seems to be pretty comprehensive.

===Scientific Works===
*King, J. K. (1984). The Rungus Language. In J. K. King & J. W. King (Eds.), ''Languages of Sabah: A Survey Report'', pp.283-296. The Australian National University. [http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-C78.283.pdf PDF]
**This is a survey of the dialects of Rungus, testing dialect intelligibility. Not sure if this will be helpful, but it's here for now.
*Al-Khaza'leh, B. A. (2023). Status of Rungus Language as an Indigenous Language Spoken by Rungus Ethnic Group in Eastern Malaysia. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research,'' ''14''(3), pp. 656-664. [https://jltr.academypublication.com/index.php/jltr/article/view/5904/4720 URL].
**This is essentially an ethnographic status check on how the Rungus language is doing endangerment-wise. The language is endangered and literacy rates are dropping.

===Corpora===
{{comment|Would be good to know licenses of these sources. -JNW}}
*Sulukan, Minie (translator). (2020). SUMODIA suma'ap #COVID-19. University Malaysia Sabah. [https://www.ums.edu.my/v5/ms/announcement-link-3/9225-projek-terjemahan-poster-anti-covid-19-who-fifa-ke-bahasa-orang-asal-sabah-2 URL]
**Translation of COVID resources. The page itself is in Malay, but at the bottom there are versions of each poster translated into Rungus.
**The [https://www.ums.edu.my/v5/en/home/copyright-policy terms of use] appear to allow for us to use their materials freely. They say they are present for teaching and learning and they are not responsible for damages caused by the use of their materials.
*It Avanus o Bahazan: om ongo surat vokon
**Seems to be a book in Rungus. Requested through ILL (Edit: arrived)

==Developed Resources==
*Course Github Repository [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg-corpus/tree/main]
**Currently holds several files of Rungus words, phrases, and sentences
===Keyboard===
*[[Rungus/Keyboard]]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg-keyboard Git keyboard repository]

===Grammar===
*[[Rungus/Grammar]]

===Transducer===
*[[Rungus/Transducer]]
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp25/ling073-drg Git transducer repository]

===Machine Translation===
*[[Rungus_and_English]]

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:sp25_ResourceDocumentation]]

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T15:51:01Z

Cliu1:

Resources for machine translation between [[Rungus]] and [[English]]
==External Resources==

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs]]

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T15:34:00Z

Cliu1:

==External Resources==

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs]]

Rungus and English

2025-03-27T15:30:20Z

Cliu1: Created page with " Category:Rungus Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs"

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:Sp25_TranslationPairs]]

Rungus/Grammar

2025-03-06T22:54:31Z

Cliu1: /* Enclitics */

==Parts of Speech==
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
* Nouns {{tag|n}}, e.g., ''ulun'' 'person'
* Verbs {{tag|v}}, e.g., ''imot'' 'to see'
* Adjectives {{tag|adj}}, ''asavat'' 'high'
* Determiners {{tag|det}}, e.g., ''it''
* Pronouns {{tag|prn}}, e.g., ''ioku'' 'I'
* Prepositions {{tag|pr}}. There is only one preposition, ''sid''
* Numerals {{tag|num}}?, e.g., ''limo'', 'five'

==Inflectional Morphology==

===Intransitive Prefixes===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?).

The prefix m- indicates process:
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mimot}} ('see')
*{{morphTest|odop{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|modop}} ('sleep')
*{{morphTest|ogom{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mogom}} ('sit')

One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
*{{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|muvalai}} ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
*{{morphTest|kadai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukadai}} ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
*{{morphTest|kabun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukabun}} ('garden' → 'be a farmer')

===Transitive Prefixes===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.

Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}.

1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/
For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).

Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamanau}}
* {{morphTest|babo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamabo}}
* {{morphTest|bubul{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momubul}}
* {{morphTest|valiu{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamaliu}}
* {{morphTest|vudut{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momudut}}

Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
* {{morphTest|taʼud{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|manaʼud}}
* {{morphTest|tulung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monulung}}
* {{morphTest|sukung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monukung}}

Stem initial voiceless velars:
* {{morphTest|kama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangama}}
* {{morphTest|kuvo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monguvo}}

2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/
For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
* {{morphTest|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoduat}}
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangagama}}
* {{morphTest|guna{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoguno}}
* {{morphTest|havol{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangahavol}}
* {{morphTest|ramit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangaramit}}
* {{morphTest|lobong{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongolobong}}
* {{morphTest|zazak{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangazazak}}
* {{morphTest|malun{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangamalun}}
* {{morphTest|jamin{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangajamin}}

3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/)
For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.
* {{morphTest|ido{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongido}}
* {{morphTest|ovit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongovit}}
* {{morphTest|ada{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangada}}
* {{morphTest|umo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongumo}}

===Plurals===
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.

====Pluralizing Nouns====
The pluralizing prefix {{tag|pl}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
* {{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongovalai}}
* {{morphTest|palampag{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongopalampag}}
* {{morphTest|aki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|angaki}}
* {{morphTest|idi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongedi}}
* {{morphTest|ulon{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongulon}}
* {{morphTest|dupot{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongodupot}}

====Collectivizing Nouns====
The collectivizing prefix {{tag|coll}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
* {{morphTest|ulun{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songulun}}
* {{morphTest|anak{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|sanganak}}
* {{morphTest|riniba{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songriniba}}

===Personal Pronouns===
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ioku}} {{morphTest|oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|oku}}
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|ikito}} {{morphTest|kito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|kito}}
| exclusive
| inclusive
|-
| {{morphTest|iokoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|iokoi}} {{morphTest|okoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|okoi}}
| {{morphTest|itokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|itokou}} {{morphTest|tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|tokou}}
|-
| colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{morphTest|ikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ikau}} {{morphTest|ko{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ko}}
| N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|ikou}} {{morphTest|kou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kou}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 3rd
| regular
| {{morphTest|ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|ialo}}
| rowspan="2" | N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|iolo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|iolo}}
|-
| referential
| {{morphTest|iosido{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|refe}}|iosido}}
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|refe}}|ioti}}
|}

===Demonstratives===
====Demonstrative Determiners====
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
* {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|it}}
* {{morphTest|ot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|nom}}|ot}}
* {{morphTest|dit{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}}|dit}}
* {{morphTest|dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}}|dot}}

The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.

====Demonstrative Pronouns====
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Proximity
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Locative
|-
| proximate
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|nom}}|iti}}
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|acc}}|diti}}
| {{morphTest|siti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|loc}}|siti}}
|-
| less close
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ino}}
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dino}}
| {{morphTest|sino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sino}}
|-
| distant
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ilo}}
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dilo}}
| {{morphTest|silo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|silo}}
|-
| the aforementioned
| {{morphTest|iri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}|iri}}
| {{morphTest|diri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}|diri}}
|}

The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
* {{morphTest|sori{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sori}}
* {{morphTest|hodi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|hodi}}
''sori'' refers to something in the far distance, while ''hodi'' refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.

====Contractions====
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner ''it'':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!! colspan="2"| Nominative !! colspan="2" | Accusative
|-
| iti + it = itit
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|itit}}
| diti + it = ditit
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|prx}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ditit}}
|-
| ino + it = inot
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|inot}}
| dino + it = dinot
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dinot}}
|-
| ilo + it = ilot
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ilot}}
| dilo + it = dilot
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dilot}}
|}

===Reduplication===
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go')
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work')
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run')

Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action.
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
* {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')

===Enclitics===
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).

1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+no{{tag|enc}}|limono}} ('already five')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')

2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+po{{tag|enc}}|limopo}} ('five more')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}+po{{tag|enc}}|imataipo}} ('seen first')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|neg}}+po{{tag|enc}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')

3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
*{{morphTest|emot{{tag|adj}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|emotnopo}} ('always visible')
*{{morphTest|mangatag{{tag|v}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|mangatagnopo}} ('always repairing')

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]

Rungus/Grammar

2025-02-27T17:24:01Z

Cliu1: /* Intransitive Prefixes */

==Parts of Speech==
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
* Nouns {{tag|n}}, e.g., ''ulun'' 'person'
* Verbs {{tag|v}}, e.g., ''imot'' 'to see'
* Adjectives {{tag|adj}}, ''asavat'' 'high'
* Determiners {{tag|det}}, e.g., ''it''
* Pronouns {{tag|prn}}, e.g., ''ioku'' 'I'
* Prepositions {{tag|pr}}. There is only one preposition, ''sid''
* Numerals {{tag|num}}?, e.g., ''limo'', 'five'

==Inflectional Morphology==

===Intransitive Prefixes===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?).

The prefix m- indicates process:
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mimot}} ('see')
*{{morphTest|odop{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|modop}} ('sleep')
*{{morphTest|ogom{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mogom}} ('sit')

One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
*{{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|muvalai}} ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
*{{morphTest|kadai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukadai}} ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
*{{morphTest|kabun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukabun}} ('garden' → 'be a farmer')

==="Transitive Prefixes"===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.

Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}.

1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/
For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).

Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamanau}}
* {{morphTest|babo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamabo}}
* {{morphTest|bubul{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momubul}}
* {{morphTest|valiu{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamaliu}}
* {{morphTest|vudut{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momudut}}

Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
* {{morphTest|taʼud{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|manaʼud}}
* {{morphTest|tulung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monulung}}
* {{morphTest|sukung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monukung}}

Stem initial voiceless velars:
* {{morphTest|kama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangama}}
* {{morphTest|kuvo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monguvo}}

2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/
For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
* {{morphTest|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoduat}}
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangagama}}
* {{morphTest|guna{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoguno}}
* {{morphTest|havol{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangahavol}}
* {{morphTest|ramit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangaramit}}
* {{morphTest|lobong{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongolobong}}
* {{morphTest|zazak{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangazazak}}
* {{morphTest|malun{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangamalun}}
* {{morphTest|jamin{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangajamin}}

3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/)
For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.
* {{morphTest|ido{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongido}}
* {{morphTest|ovit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongovit}}
* {{morphTest|ada{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangada}}
* {{morphTest|umo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongumo}}

===Plurals===
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.

====Pluralizing Nouns====
The pluralizing prefix {{tag|pl}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
* {{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongovalai}}
* {{morphTest|palampag{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongopalampag}}
* {{morphTest|aki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|angaki}}
* {{morphTest|idi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongedi}}
* {{morphTest|ulon{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongulon}}
* {{morphTest|dupot{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongodupot}}

====Collectivizing Nouns====
The collectivizing prefix {{tag|coll}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
* {{morphTest|ulun{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songulun}}
* {{morphTest|anak{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|sanganak}}
* {{morphTest|riniba{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songriniba}}

===Personal Pronouns===
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ioku}} {{morphTest|oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|oku}}
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|ikito}} {{morphTest|kito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|kito}}
| exclusive
| inclusive
|-
| {{morphTest|iokoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|iokoi}} {{morphTest|okoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|okoi}}
| {{morphTest|itokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|itokou}} {{morphTest|tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|tokou}}
|-
| colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{morphTest|ikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ikau}} {{morphTest|ko{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ko}}
| N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|ikou}} {{morphTest|kou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kou}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 3rd
| regular
| {{morphTest|ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|ialo}}
| rowspan="2" | N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|iolo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|iolo}}
|-
| referential
| {{morphTest|iosido{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|refe}}|iosido}}
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|refe}}|ioti}}
|}

===Demonstratives===
====Demonstrative Determiners====
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
* {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|it}}
* {{morphTest|ot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|nom}}|ot}}
* {{morphTest|dit{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}}|dit}}
* {{morphTest|dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}}|dot}}

The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.

====Demonstrative Pronouns====
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Proximity
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Locative
|-
| proximate
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|nom}}|iti}}
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|acc}}|diti}}
| {{morphTest|siti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|loc}}|siti}}
|-
| less close
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ino}}
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dino}}
| {{morphTest|sino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sino}}
|-
| distant
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ilo}}
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dilo}}
| {{morphTest|silo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|silo}}
|-
| the aforementioned
| {{morphTest|iri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}|iri}}
| {{morphTest|diri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}|diri}}
|}

The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
* {{morphTest|sori{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sori}}
* {{morphTest|hodi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|hodi}}
''sori'' refers to something in the far distance, while ''hodi'' refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.

====Contractions====
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner ''it'':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!! colspan="2"| Nominative !! colspan="2" | Accusative
|-
| iti + it = itit
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|itit}}
| diti + it = ditit
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ditit}}
|-
| ino + it = inot
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|inot}}
| dino + it = dinot
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dinot}}
|-
| ilo + it = ilot
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ilot}}
| dilo + it = dilot
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dilot}}
|}

===Reduplication===
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go')
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work')
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run')

Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action.
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
* {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')

===Enclitics===
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).

1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+no{{tag|enc}}|limono}} ('already five')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')

2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+po{{tag|enc}}|limopo}} ('five more')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}+po{{tag|enc}}|imatai}} ('seen first')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|neg}}+po{{tag|enc}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')

3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
*{{morphTest|emot{{tag|adj}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|emotnopo}} ('always visible')
*{{morphTest|mangatag{{tag|v}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|mangatagnopo}} ('always repairing')

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]

Rungus/Grammar

2025-02-27T17:23:54Z

Cliu1: /* Inflectional Morphology */

==Parts of Speech==
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
* Nouns {{tag|n}}, e.g., ''ulun'' 'person'
* Verbs {{tag|v}}, e.g., ''imot'' 'to see'
* Adjectives {{tag|adj}}, ''asavat'' 'high'
* Determiners {{tag|det}}, e.g., ''it''
* Pronouns {{tag|prn}}, e.g., ''ioku'' 'I'
* Prepositions {{tag|pr}}. There is only one preposition, ''sid''
* Numerals {{tag|num}}?, e.g., ''limo'', 'five'

==Inflectional Morphology==

===Intransitive Prefixes===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?).

The prefix m- indicates process:
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mimot}} ('see')
*{{morphTest|odop{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|modop}} ('sleep')
*{{morphTest|ogom{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mogom}} ('sit')

One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
*{{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|muvalai}} ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
*{{morphTest|kadai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukadai}} ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
*{{morphTest|kabun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukabun}} ('garden' → 'be a farmer')

==="Transitive Prefixes"===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.

Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}.

1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/
For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).

Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamanau}}
* {{morphTest|babo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamabo}}
* {{morphTest|bubul{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momubul}}
* {{morphTest|valiu{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamaliu}}
* {{morphTest|vudut{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momudut}}

Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
* {{morphTest|taʼud{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|manaʼud}}
* {{morphTest|tulung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monulung}}
* {{morphTest|sukung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monukung}}

Stem initial voiceless velars:
* {{morphTest|kama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangama}}
* {{morphTest|kuvo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monguvo}}

2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/
For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
* {{morphTest|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoduat}}
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangagama}}
* {{morphTest|guna{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoguno}}
* {{morphTest|havol{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangahavol}}
* {{morphTest|ramit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangaramit}}
* {{morphTest|lobong{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongolobong}}
* {{morphTest|zazak{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangazazak}}
* {{morphTest|malun{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangamalun}}
* {{morphTest|jamin{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangajamin}}

3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/)
For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.
* {{morphTest|ido{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongido}}
* {{morphTest|ovit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongovit}}
* {{morphTest|ada{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangada}}
* {{morphTest|umo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongumo}}

===Plurals===
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.

====Pluralizing Nouns====
The pluralizing prefix {{tag|pl}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
* {{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongovalai}}
* {{morphTest|palampag{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongopalampag}}
* {{morphTest|aki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|angaki}}
* {{morphTest|idi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongedi}}
* {{morphTest|ulon{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongulon}}
* {{morphTest|dupot{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongodupot}}

====Collectivizing Nouns====
The collectivizing prefix {{tag|coll}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
* {{morphTest|ulun{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songulun}}
* {{morphTest|anak{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|sanganak}}
* {{morphTest|riniba{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songriniba}}

===Personal Pronouns===
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ioku}} {{morphTest|oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|oku}}
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|ikito}} {{morphTest|kito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|kito}}
| exclusive
| inclusive
|-
| {{morphTest|iokoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|iokoi}} {{morphTest|okoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|okoi}}
| {{morphTest|itokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|itokou}} {{morphTest|tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|tokou}}
|-
| colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{morphTest|ikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ikau}} {{morphTest|ko{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ko}}
| N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|ikou}} {{morphTest|kou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kou}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 3rd
| regular
| {{morphTest|ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|ialo}}
| rowspan="2" | N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|iolo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|iolo}}
|-
| referential
| {{morphTest|iosido{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|refe}}|iosido}}
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|refe}}|ioti}}
|}

===Demonstratives===
====Demonstrative Determiners====
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
* {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|it}}
* {{morphTest|ot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|nom}}|ot}}
* {{morphTest|dit{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}}|dit}}
* {{morphTest|dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}}|dot}}

The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.

====Demonstrative Pronouns====
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Proximity
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Locative
|-
| proximate
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|nom}}|iti}}
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|acc}}|diti}}
| {{morphTest|siti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|loc}}|siti}}
|-
| less close
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ino}}
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dino}}
| {{morphTest|sino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sino}}
|-
| distant
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ilo}}
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dilo}}
| {{morphTest|silo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|silo}}
|-
| the aforementioned
| {{morphTest|iri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}|iri}}
| {{morphTest|diri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}|diri}}
|}

The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
* {{morphTest|sori{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sori}}
* {{morphTest|hodi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|hodi}}
''sori'' refers to something in the far distance, while ''hodi'' refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.

====Contractions====
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner ''it'':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!! colspan="2"| Nominative !! colspan="2" | Accusative
|-
| iti + it = itit
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|itit}}
| diti + it = ditit
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ditit}}
|-
| ino + it = inot
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|inot}}
| dino + it = dinot
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dinot}}
|-
| ilo + it = ilot
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ilot}}
| dilo + it = dilot
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dilot}}
|}

===Reduplication===
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go')
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work')
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run')

Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action.
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
* {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')

===Enclitics===
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).

1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+no{{tag|enc}}|limono}} ('already five')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')

2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+po{{tag|enc}}|limopo}} ('five more')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}+po{{tag|enc}}|imatai}} ('seen first')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|neg}}+po{{tag|enc}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')

3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
*{{morphTest|emot{{tag|adj}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|emotnopo}} ('always visible')
*{{morphTest|mangatag{{tag|v}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|mangatagnopo}} ('always repairing')

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]

Rungus/Grammar

2025-02-27T17:21:42Z

Cliu1: /* "Intransitive Prefixes" */

==Parts of Speech==
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
* Nouns {{tag|n}}, e.g., ''ulun'' 'person'
* Verbs {{tag|v}}, e.g., ''imot'' 'to see'
* Adjectives {{tag|adj}}, ''asavat'' 'high'
* Determiners {{tag|det}}, e.g., ''it''
* Pronouns {{tag|prn}}, e.g., ''ioku'' 'I'
* Prepositions {{tag|pr}}. There is only one preposition, ''sid''
* Numerals {{tag|num}}?, e.g., ''limo'', 'five'

==Inflectional Morphology==

===Intransitive Prefixes===
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb:

The prefix m- indicates process:
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mimot}} ('see')
*{{morphTest|odop{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|modop}} ('sleep')
*{{morphTest|ogom{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mogom}} ('sit')

One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
*{{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|muvalai}} ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
*{{morphTest|kadai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukadai}} ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
*{{morphTest|kabun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukabun}} ('garden' → 'be a farmer')

==="Transitive Prefixes"===
Transitive verbs are those that can take an object. They are conjugated with a prefix (denoting aspect). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.

Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}.

1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/
For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).

Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamanau}}
* {{morphTest|babo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamabo}}
* {{morphTest|bubul{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momubul}}
* {{morphTest|valiu{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamaliu}}
* {{morphTest|vudut{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momudut}}

Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
* {{morphTest|taʼud{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|manaʼud}}
* {{morphTest|tulung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monulung}}
* {{morphTest|sukung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monukung}}

Stem initial voiceless velars:
* {{morphTest|kama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangama}}
* {{morphTest|kuvo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monguvo}}

2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/
For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
* {{morphTest|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoduat}}
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangagama}}
* {{morphTest|guna{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoguno}}
* {{morphTest|havol{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangahavol}}
* {{morphTest|ramit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangaramit}}
* {{morphTest|lobong{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongolobong}}
* {{morphTest|zazak{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangazazak}}
* {{morphTest|malun{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangamalun}}
* {{morphTest|jamin{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangajamin}}

3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/)
For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.
* {{morphTest|ido{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongido}}
* {{morphTest|ovit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongovit}}
* {{morphTest|ada{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangada}}
* {{morphTest|umo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongumo}}

===Plurals===
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.

====Pluralizing Nouns====
The pluralizing prefix {{tag|pl}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
* {{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongovalai}}
* {{morphTest|palampag{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongopalampag}}
* {{morphTest|aki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|angaki}}
* {{morphTest|idi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongedi}}
* {{morphTest|ulon{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongulon}}
* {{morphTest|dupot{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongodupot}}

====Collectivizing Nouns====
The collectivizing prefix {{tag|coll}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
* {{morphTest|ulun{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songulun}}
* {{morphTest|anak{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|sanganak}}
* {{morphTest|riniba{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songriniba}}

===Personal Pronouns===
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ioku}} {{morphTest|oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|oku}}
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|ikito}} {{morphTest|kito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|kito}}
| exclusive
| inclusive
|-
| {{morphTest|iokoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|iokoi}} {{morphTest|okoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|okoi}}
| {{morphTest|itokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|itokou}} {{morphTest|tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|tokou}}
|-
| colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{morphTest|ikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ikau}} {{morphTest|ko{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ko}}
| N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|ikou}} {{morphTest|kou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kou}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 3rd
| regular
| {{morphTest|ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|ialo}}
| rowspan="2" | N/A
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|iolo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|iolo}}
|-
| referential
| {{morphTest|iosido{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|refe}}|iosido}}
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|refe}}|ioti}}
|}

===Demonstratives===
====Demonstrative Determiners====
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
* {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|it}}
* {{morphTest|ot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|nom}}|ot}}
* {{morphTest|dit{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|acc}}|dit}}
* {{morphTest|dot{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|acc}}|dot}}

The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.

====Demonstrative Pronouns====
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Proximity
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Locative
|-
| proximate
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|nom}}|iti}}
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|acc}}|diti}}
| {{morphTest|siti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|loc}}|siti}}
|-
| less close
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ino}}
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dino}}
| {{morphTest|sino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sino}}
|-
| distant
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ilo}}
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dilo}}
| {{morphTest|silo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|silo}}
|-
| the aforementioned
| {{morphTest|iri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}|iri}}
| {{morphTest|diri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}|diri}}
|}

The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
* {{morphTest|sori{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sori}}
* {{morphTest|hodi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|hodi}}
''sori'' refers to something in the far distance, while ''hodi'' refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.

====Contractions====
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner ''it'':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!! colspan="2"| Nominative !! colspan="2" | Accusative
|-
| iti + it = itit
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|itit}}
| diti + it = ditit
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ditit}}
|-
| ino + it = inot
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|inot}}
| dino + it = dinot
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dinot}}
|-
| ilo + it = ilot
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ilot}}
| dilo + it = dilot
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}} + {{morphTest|it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dilot}}
|}

===Reduplication===
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go')
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work')
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run')

Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action.
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
* {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')

===Enclitics===
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).

1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+no{{tag|enc}}|limono}} ('already five')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')

2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+po{{tag|enc}}|limopo}} ('five more')
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}+po{{tag|enc}}|imatai}} ('seen first')
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|neg}}+po{{tag|enc}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')

3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
*{{morphTest|emot{{tag|adj}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|emotnopo}} ('always visible')
*{{morphTest|mangatag{{tag|v}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|mangatagnopo}} ('always repairing')

[[Category:Rungus]]
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]