LING073 - User contributions [en]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T21:31:31Z

Zwang6: /* Case III */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft. If a word that is closely related to this meaning is near མཐུ་, it will be realized as black magic. Else, by default it would be realized as power.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand belongs to the the subcategory {{tag|hn}} in {{tag|n}}, so it is only realized when a word that falls in the "honorific" category is near ཕྱག་. Else, it will be realized as ཕྱག་/prostrate.

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* Generalization rule: འཐེན་/pull is realized if it is preceded by a noun that falls in the "pull-able" category. འཐེན་/sing is realized otherwise.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T21:31:08Z

Zwang6: /* Case II */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft. If a word that is closely related to this meaning is near མཐུ་, it will be realized as black magic. Else, by default it would be realized as power.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand belongs to the the subcategory {{tag|hn}} in {{tag|n}}, so it is only realized when a word that falls in the "honorific" category is near ཕྱག་. Else, it will be realized as ཕྱག་/prostrate.

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* Generalization rule: འཐེན་/pull is realized their exists an object of the sentence and falls in the "pull-able" category. འཐེན་/sing is realized otherwise.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T21:30:54Z

Zwang6: /* Case I */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft. If a word that is closely related to this meaning is near མཐུ་, it will be realized as black magic. Else, by default it would be realized as power.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand belongs to the the subcategory {{tag|hn}} in {{tag|n}}, so it is only realized when a word that falls in the "honorific" category is within 2 cohorts of ཕྱག་. Else, it will be realized as ཕྱག་/prostrate.

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* Generalization rule: འཐེན་/pull is realized their exists an object of the sentence and falls in the "pull-able" category. འཐེན་/sing is realized otherwise.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T21:06:25Z

Zwang6: /* dzo → eng */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft. If a word that is closely related to this meaning is within 2 cohorts of མཐུ་, it will be realized as black magic. Else, by default it would be realized as power.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand belongs to the the subcategory {{tag|hn}} in {{tag|n}}, so it is only realized when a word that falls in the "honorific" category is within 2 cohorts of ཕྱག་. Else, it will be realized as ཕྱག་/prostrate.

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* Generalization rule: འཐེན་/pull is realized their exists an object of the sentence and falls in the "pull-able" category. འཐེན་/sing is realized otherwise.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T20:54:21Z

Zwang6: /* Case I */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft. If a word that is closely related to this meaning is within 2 cohorts of མཐུ་, it will be realized as black magic. Else, by default it would be realized as power.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand takes on the subcategory {{tag|hn}} after {{tag|n}}

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* The default will be འཐེན་/pull.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha and English/Lexical Selection

2021-05-14T20:46:16Z

Zwang6: /* dzo → eng */

== dzo → eng ==

=== Case I ===
མཐུ་ → bewitchment/black magic, power

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཁོ་གི་'''མཐུ'''་རྐྱབ་འོང་ || He might do '''black magic'''.
|-
| སྨན་གྱི་'''མཐུ'''་ || The '''power''' of medicine.
|}

* Generalization rule: མཐུ་/black magic is usually followed by closely related words like casting(do), spell, witchcraft.

=== Case II ===

ཕྱག་ → honorific of hand, prostrate

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་འཚལ་གེ་ || Let (us) '''prostrate'''.
|-
| '''ཕྱག'''་ལས་གནང་|| Bestowed from (their) '''hand'''.
|}

* Generalization rule: ཕྱག་/hand takes on the subcategory {{tag|hn}} after {{tag|n}}

=== Case III ===

འཐེན་ → verbal message, pull

Example sentences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dzongkha Sentence !! English Translation
|-
| ཞབས་ཁྲ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་ || (We) will '''sing'''.
|-
| ཐགཔ་'''འཐེན'''་ནི་|| (We) will '''pull''' the rope.
|}

* The default will be འཐེན་/pull.

[[Category:Sp21_LexicalSelection]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] [[ Category: English]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T20:20:56Z

Zwang6: /* Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|འཐེན་ཅི་}} ("sing" becomes "sang")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb is denoted by the suffix «ད་» attached to the bare uninflected stem, it uses the tag {{tag|imp}}. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix ===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T20:20:42Z

Zwang6: /* Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|འཐེན་ཅི་}} ("sing" becomes "sang")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb is denoted by the suffix «ད་» attached to the bare uninflected stem, it uses the tag {{tag|imp}}. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix ===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T19:19:19Z

Zwang6: /* Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|འཐེན་ཅི་}} ("sing" becomes "sang")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare uninflected stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix ===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T19:01:58Z

Zwang6: /* Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|འཐེན་ཅི་}} ("sing" becomes "sang")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare uninflected stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix ===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:48:44Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare uninflected stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix ===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:48:29Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare uninflected stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:43:18Z

Zwang6: /* Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare uninflected stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:24:05Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (can't)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pot}}|མ་འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:22:51Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’ or ‘can’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|adh}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, using the tag {{tag|opt}}, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|opt}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|opt}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, using the tag {{tag|pot}}, there are two possibilities.

It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

Or it can attach to the inflected stem to express past or present possibility:
*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|དགའཝ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

The negative potential is formed by negating the potential auxiliary «འོང་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (can)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pot}}|འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:19:00Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», indicating a possibility and similar to English ‘could’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, using the tag {{tag|adh}} , the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|adh}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, there are two possibilities. It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:
*{{morphTest|དགའ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|དགའ་}} ("love" becomes (could)"love")
*{{morphTest|འོང་{{tag|vaux}}|འོང་}}

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:14:47Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», similar to English ‘to come’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|བཤོལ་གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

When attaching the auxiliary «འོང་» to the verb stem, there are two possibilities. It can either attach to the regular stem to express future possibility:

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:08:46Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», similar to English ‘to come’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}|འབདཝ་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:07:21Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb, which uses the tag {{tag|infl}}.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|infl}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», similar to English ‘to come’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:06:44Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Several auxiliaries see much use in Dzongkha: the potential auxiliary «འོང་», similar to English ‘to come’, the adhortative auxiliary «གེ», similar to English ‘let’, and the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་», similar to English ‘may’.

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, the auxiliary «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by attaching the negative auxiliary «བཤོལ་གེ་» to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:00:50Z

Zwang6: /* Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways, we introduce three here: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T17:00:05Z

Zwang6: /* Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) ===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffix «ཤིག», using the tag {{tag|urg}}, can be used to attribute an urging tone to the imperative, on the speaker's behalf.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|urg}}|སྟོན་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:57:25Z

Zwang6: /* Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute a tone to the imperative. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|imp}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:56:20Z

Zwang6: /* Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative of a verb, as previously shown, is just its bare stem. Additionally, the suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute a tone to the imperative. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:54:54Z

Zwang6: /* Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}.

There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:54:43Z

Zwang6: /* Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense, and also used as an imperative. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense/imperative. For the purposes of our project, we will give all such bare stems the tag {{tag|imp}}
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:53:29Z

Zwang6: /* Verbal Adjective */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinator «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:52:40Z

Zwang6: /* Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» along with a "to be" verb is one way; using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ» is another. The auxiliaries will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:51:35Z

Zwang6: /* Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» renders it a verbal noun, and is used with a "to be" verb; or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ». These will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|inf}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|inf}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:51:09Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» renders it a verbal noun, and is used with a "to be" verb; or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ». These will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:50:52Z

Zwang6: /* Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) ===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» renders it a verbal noun, and is used with a "to be" verb; or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་» or the adhortative auxiliary «གེ». These will be looked at in the auxiliary section.

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "to look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "to wash")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:44:40Z

Zwang6: /* Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) ===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:44:29Z

Zwang6: /* Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("did not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|མི་འབད་དོ་}} ("not doing")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:43:13Z

Zwang6: /* Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:42:37Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:41:31Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|rec}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:41:01Z

Zwang6: /* Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

*{{morphTest|ཧ་གོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|ཧ་མི་གོ་}} ("not understand")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:36:54Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) (More examples needed) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-05-04T16:36:46Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) (More examples needed) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) (More examples needed) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«མས་» is the experienced perceptions tense, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟཝ་མས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|བལྟཝ་མས་}} ("look" becomes "just looking")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-16T14:58:00Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) (More examples needed) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-16T14:57:39Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and are usually only used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb instead of the bare stem of the verb. (More examples needed)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-16T14:56:11Z

Zwang6: /* Genitive Suffixes */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels. It is interchangeable with «གི་» when doing so. It is less commonly used.

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity (specific LEXICON in lexd). It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-04T18:46:48Z

Zwang6: /* Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) ===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity (specific LEXICON in lexd). It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-04T18:42:17Z

Zwang6: /* Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་)===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-04T18:41:59Z

Zwang6: /* Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་, ར་, ལ་, ད་, བ་, ས་, ག་, ང་, or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-04-04T18:33:33Z

Zwang6: /* Genitive Suffixes {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་ or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-03-20T08:17:18Z

Zwang6: /* Alternations */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་ or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-03-20T07:53:14Z

Zwang6: /* Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}} */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་ or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}|མི་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-03-20T07:52:32Z

Zwang6: /* Alternations */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་ or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]

Dzongkha/Grammar

2021-03-20T07:43:09Z

Zwang6: /* Alternations */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Noun (མིང་) ===

Nouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|n}}.

==== Common Noun (མིང་ཙམ་) ====

* ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}("house")
* མེ་ཏོག་{{tag|n}}("flower")

==== Gendered Noun (རྟགས་མིང་) ====

Gendered nouns in Dzongkha have different forms for males and females. These will use the tags {{tag|f}} and {{tag|m}} added to denote gender. The default neutral noun is male.

*{{morphTest|གཡག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|འབྱི་}} ("yak")
*{{morphTest|བ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|གླང་}} ("ox")

==== Honorific Noun (ཞེ་སའི་མིང་) ====

Honorific nouns in Dzongkha are used when the original form is deemed inappropriate in terms of politeness in a certain conversation.
*{{morphTest|ལུས་{{tag|n}}|སྐུ་}} ("body")
*{{morphTest|མགུ་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}|དབུ་}} ("head")

=== Pronouns (མིང་ཚབ་) ===
Pronouns in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|prn}}. For honorific pronouns we will use the tag {{tag|ph}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dzongkha Personal Pronouns
!
! singular
! plural
|-
! first person
| ང་ '''nga''' I || ང་བཅས་ '''ngace''' we
|-
! second person
| ཁྱོད་ '''chö''' you || ཁྱོད་ '''chä''' you
|-
! third person
| ཁོ་/མོ་ '''kho/mo''' he/she || ཁོང་ '''khong''' they
|-
! honorific
| ནཱ་ '''nâ''' he/she/you || ནཱ་བུ་ '''nâ-bu''' they, you
|}

=== Verb (བྱ་ཚིག་) ===

Standard or "lexical" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|v}}, which is shortened from {{tag|vblex}}. The bare stem of any verb, by itself, is a steady-state present tense. Strictly speaking, the steady state present is not a present tense but a tenseless verb form which also encompasses present time, but for the purposes of our analysis, we will treat it as present tense. By default, any verb that has no other tense or mode tags will be a steady-state present tense.
There exist some unique verb classes of interest, three of which are listed below.

==== Modal Verb====

Modal verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbmod}}.

* ཚུགས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("be able to")

* ཤེས་{{tag|vbmod}} ("know how to")

==== "To be" Verb ====

"To be" verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vbser}}. There are five "to be" verbs in Dzongkha.

* ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཨིན་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེན་}}

* ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|ཡོད་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མེད་}}

* འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}
*{{morphTest|འདུག་{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|neg}}|མིན་འདུག་}}

* སྨོ་{{tag|vbser}}

==== Auxiliary Verb ====

Auxiliary verbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|vaux}}.

=== Adjective (ཁྱད་ཚིག་) ===

Adjectives in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adj}}.

==== Descriptive Adjectives (ངོ་བོའི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====

*མེ་ཚ་ཏོག་ཏོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("hot fire")
*ཕོ་སྐྱེས་དོད་རི་རི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}} ("strong man")

==== Quantitative Adjectives (གྲངས་ཀྱི་ཁྱད་ཚིག།) ====
Nouns {{tag|n}} can be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with an quantitative adjective suffix «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» or «ཚུ་», which uses the tag {{tag|qnt}}:
*{{morphTest|ཕམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|ཕམ་ཆ་ཁྱབ་}} ("parent" becomes "parents")
*{{morphTest|བྱི་ལི་{{tag|n}}{{tag|adj}}{{tag|qnt}}|བྱི་ལི་ཚུ་}} ("cat" becomes "cats")
Note that while «ཚུ» can be independently attached to any kind of noun, «ཆ་ཁྱབ་» is context dependant. It is usually used to pluralize nouns referring to people.

=== Adverb (དབྱེ་ཚིག་) ===

Adverbs in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|adv}}.

*ཁུ་སིམ་སི་{{tag|adv}}+སྡོད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("sit silently")
*ལེགས་ཤོམ་{{tag|adv}}+སླབ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}} ("speak nicely")

«སྦེ» is a common linking particle that is used to impose the meaning of adverb (ཁུ་སིམ་སི་ - silently) onto a verb (སྡོད་ - sit).

=== Postposition ===

Postpositions in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|post}}.

=== Interjection ===

Interjections in Dzongkha would use {{tag|ij}} tags.

=== Numeral ===

There are two number systems generally followed: the decimal system and the vigesimal system.

Numerals in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|num}}.

=== Determiner ===

Determiners in Dzongkha will use the tag {{tag|det}}.

The definite article «དེ» can also be written as «འདི་» in its free form. It functions as a demonstrative pronoun, which can be used by itself as the subject of a sentence.

*འདི་བྱི་ལི་ཨིན་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|n}}{{tag|vbser}} ("this is cat")

By contrast, the bound morpheme «དེ» is a definite article suffixed to the noun phrase that it modifies.
*རོ་ཁྱི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the dog")
*བྱི་ལི་དེ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}} ("the cat")

== Alternations ==

=== Genitive Suffixes ===

Genitive suffixes «གྱི་», «ཀྱི་», «གི་» and «འི་» indicate possession or a part-to-whole relationship, similar to English ‘of’. There are several different suffixes to be used based on the ending of the original word.

«གྱི་» is used after words ending in ན་, མ་, ར་ and ལ་.

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁྱིམ་གྱི་}} ("house" becomes "house's")
**ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ལྡེ་མིག་ house's key = the key to the house

«ཀྱི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ད་, བ་, and ས་.

*{{morphTest|ང་བཅས་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་}} ("us" becomes "our")
**ང་བཅས་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་ our house

«གི་» is used after words ending in orthographic ག་ and ང་, and certain words ending in vowels.

*{{morphTest|ཁོང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོང་གི་}} ("they" becomes "their")
**ཁོང་གི་རོ་ཁྱི་ their dog

*{{morphTest|ཁོ་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|ཁོ་གི་}} ("he" becomes "his")
**ཁོ་གི་མིང་ his name

«འི་» is used after certain words ending in vowels

*{{morphTest|ཨམ་ཚུ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|ཨམ་ཚུའི་}} ("wife" becomes "wife's")
**ཨམ་ཚུའི་ལགཔ་ wife's hand

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|ངའི་}} ("me" becomes "my")
**ངའི་གི་བུམོ་ my daughter

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in orthographic འ་.

*{{morphTest|མདའ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|མདའ་ཡི་}} ("arrow" becomes "arrow's")
**མདའ་ཡི་སྒྲོ་ arrow's feather

=== Locative Suffixes ===

Locative suffixes «ནང་» and «ཁར་» indicate location or destination, similar to English ‘in’

«ནང་» is the standard locative suffix.

*{{morphTest|ཁྲོམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྲོམ་ནང་}} ("market" becomes "in the market")

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་}} ("office" becomes "in the office")

*{{morphTest|ཁྱིམ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ཁྱིམ་ནང་}} ("house" becomes "in the house")

«ཁར་» occurs in combination with a limited set of nominals.

*{{morphTest|གཡུས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|གཡུས་ཁར་}} ("village" becomes "in/to the village")

=== Ablative Suffix ===

The ablative suffix «ལས་» indicates the point of origin or departure, similar to English ‘from’.

*{{morphTest|རྒྱ་མཚོ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|རྒྱ་མཚོ་ལས་}} ("ocean" becomes "from the ocean")

*{{morphTest|ཁ་རྩ་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཁ་རྩ་ལས་}} ("yesterday" becomes "since (from) yesterday")
*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|ང་ལས་}} ("me" becomes "(from) me")

*{{morphTest|ཧིང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|ཧིང་ལས་}} ("heart" becomes "from the heart")

=== Dative Suffix ===

The dative suffix «ལུ་» expresses an activity seen as directed at the object, similar to English ‘to’ or ‘for’.

*{{morphTest|ཆ་རོགས་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཆ་རོགས་ལུ་}} ("friend" becomes "to [his] friend")

*{{morphTest|ང་{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ང་ལུ་}} ("me" becomes "to me")

It can also indicate location or direction, similar to English ‘at’.

*{{morphTest|ཐིམ་ཕུག་{{tag|n}}{{tag|dat}}|ཐིམ་ཕུག་ལུ་}} ("Thimphu" becomes "at/in Thimphu")

It may also be combined with the locative suffix to indicate the site of an activity or situation.

*{{morphTest|ཡིག་ཚང་{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|dat}}|ཡིག་ཚང་ནང་ལུ་}} ("office" becomes "at the office")

=== Past Tense Suffixes (འདས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of past tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

The first is the witnessed past, using the tag {{tag|ewit}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) consciously experienced the event decribed. «ཅི་» and «ཡི་» are used to denote the witnessed past tense.

«ཅི་» is used after words ending in པ་, ན་ and མ་. (Romanized p, n and m)

*{{morphTest|བསགས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|བསགས་ཅི་}} ("save" becomes "saved")

«ཡི་» is used after words ending in ང་ or a vowel. (Romanized ng or vowel)

*{{morphTest|སྦྱངས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|ewit}}|སྦྱངས་ཡི་}} ("learn" becomes "learned")

The second is the inferred past, using the tag {{tag|einf}}, in which the speaker(or the listener in the case of a question) did not consciously experience the event decribed. «ནུག་» is used to denote the inferred past tense.

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འཁྱུ་ནུག་}} ("wash" becomes "washed")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|einf}}|འབད་ནུག་}} ("do" becomes "did")

=== Present Tense Suffixes (ད་ལྟ་བ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

Below are two subcategories of present tense and their respective suffixes in Dzongkha.

«དོ་» is the present progressive tense, using the tag {{tag|prog}}, and can only be used on verbs that denote an activity. It expresses an activity which the subject by their own observation knows to be going on in the present.

*{{morphTest|རྐོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|རྐོ་དོ་}} ("dig" becomes "is digging")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|prog}}|འཁྱུ་དོ་}} ("wash" becomes "is washing")

«དེས་» is the experienced perceptions, or the recent past tense, using the tag {{tag|rec}}. It expresses an activity or phenomenon going on at the moment of reference, taken to be the present, which the speaker has just observed or a feeling or sensation which the speaker has just experienced. It is attached to the inflected stem of the verb. (Note:inflected stem might not be ideal to work with, change to gnomic present perhaps?)

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|ཟ་དེས་}} ("eat" becomes "just eating")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}|འབད་དེས་}} ("do" becomes "just doing")

=== Future Tense Suffixes (མ་འོངས་པ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The future tense in Dzongkha can be formed in several ways: using the infinitive suffix «ནི་» + a "to be verb", or using the potential auxiliary «འོང་», or using the adhortative auxiliary «གེ»

*{{morphTest|བལྟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|fut}}|བལྟ་ནི་}} ("look" becomes "will look")

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|འཁྱུ་ནི་}} ("wash" becomes "will wash")

*{{morphTest|གཅད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|fut}}|གཅད་འོང་}} ("break" becomes "will break")

=== Imperative Suffixes (སྐུལ་ཚིག་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The imperative suffixes «ཤིག», «ཞིག», and «ད» are used to attribute an imperative tone. All three can be used on any verb, producing the same meaning.

*{{morphTest|བྲིས་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|བྲིས་ཤིག་}}

*{{morphTest|སྟོན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|སྟོན་ཞིག་}}

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|འབད་ད་}}

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|imp}}|ཟ་ད་}}

=== Verbal Adjective ===

The subordinate suffix «མི་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb, and this ending converts the verb into a nominal constituent which can be used either independently as a nominal head or attributively to modify a noun.

*{{morphTest|འབྲི་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འབྲི་མི་}} ("write" becomes "writer" (or one who writes))

*{{morphTest|གཏང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|གཏང་མི་}} ("paint" becomes "painter" (or one who paints))

*{{morphTest|འཐེན་{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཐེན་མི་}} ("sing" becomes "singer" (or one who sings))

*{{morphTest|འཁྱུ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|vadj}}|འཁྱུ་མི་}} ("wash" becomes "washer" (or one who washes))

=== Auxiliary Verb Suffix {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

To transform a verb into its adhortative form, similar to English ‘let’, the suffix «གེ་» is attached directly to the stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|བཟོ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|བཟོ་}} ("make" becomes (let)"make")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**་ལས་རིམ་བཟོ་གེ། Let's make a plan.
*{{morphTest|སྤུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|སྤུང་}} ("collect" becomes "lets collect")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**རྡོ་ཚུ་སྤུང་གེ། Let's collect stone.

The negative adhortative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་འབད་}} ("do" becomes (let not)"do")
*{{morphTest|གེ་{{tag|vaux}}|གེ་}}
**དེ་སྦེ་མ་འབད་གེ། Let's not do it like that.

To transform a verb into its optative form, which expresses a wish or desire, similar to English ‘may’, the auxiliary «བཅུག་» is attached to the regular stem of the verb.

*{{morphTest|ཟ་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟ་}} ("eat" becomes (may)"eat")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}|བཅུག་}}
**བྱི་ཙི་དེ་ཚུ་བྱི་ལི་དེ་གིས་ཟ་བཅུག་ཤིག། May the cat eat the mice!

The negative optative is formed by negating the optative auxiliary «བཅུག་» with the prefix «མ་».

*{{morphTest|ཟུང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}|ཟུང་}} ("catch" becomes (may not)"catch")
*{{morphTest|བཅུག་{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་བཅུག་}}
**ཁོང་གིས་ཁྱོད་བཟུང་མ་བཅུག། May they not catch you!

=== Comparative and Superlative ===

The comparative prefix «བ་» is used to denote comparison, similar to English ‘than’.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་འཇའ་}} ('beautiful' becomes 'more beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|བ་རྒས་}} ('old' becomes 'older')

The superlative postposition «ཤོས་» is used to denote the highest degree of comparison.

*{{morphTest|འཇའ་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|འཇའ་ཤོས་}} (‘beautiful’ becomes 'most beautiful')

*{{morphTest|རྒས་{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|རྒས་ཤོས་}} (‘old’ becomes 'oldest')

=== Negative (དགག་སྒྲ་) {{tag|Under-Rework}}===

The negative form of verbs is denoted by the prefixes/infixes «མ་» and «མི་». «མི་» is attached to present-tense verbs, while «མ་» is attached to past tense verbs. Additionally, the prefixes, when being attached to a verb that consists of multiple syllables, the prefix attaches to the front of the last syllable, making it essentially an infix in this case.

*{{morphTest|མཐོང་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|past}}|མ་མཐོང་ནུག་}} ("not see")

*{{morphTest|འབད་{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|neg}}{{tag|pres}}|མི་འབད་འོང་}} ("not do")

[[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]]