Difference between revisions of "Rungus/Grammar"
(→Parts of Speech) |
m (→Reduplication) |
||
| Line 194: | Line 194: | ||
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc. | Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc. | ||
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go') | * {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go') | ||
| − | * {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works → work') | + | * {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work') |
| − | * {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run → (all) run') | + | * {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run') |
Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action. | Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action. | ||
| − | * {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run → (all) run again and again') | + | * {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again') |
| − | * {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather → (all) gather again and again') | + | * {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again') |
===Enclitics=== | ===Enclitics=== | ||
Revision as of 16:27, 25 February 2025
Parts of Speech
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
- Nouns <n>, e.g., ulun 'person'
- Verbs <v>, e.g., imot 'to see'
- Adjectives <adj>, asavat 'high'
- Determiners <det>, e.g., it
- Pronouns <prn>, e.g., ioku 'I'
- Prepositions <pr>. There is only one preposition, sid
- Numerals <num>?, e.g., limo, 'five'
Inflectional Morphology
"Intransitive Prefixes"
Intransitive verbs are those that do not take an object. They are conjugated with a prefix (denoting aspect).
The prefix m- indicates process:
- imot<v><iv><impf> ↔ mimot ('see')
- odop<v><iv><impf> ↔ modop ('sleep')
- ogom<v><iv><impf> ↔ mogom ('sit')
The author of the grammar was not clear about what "intransitive/transitive prefixes" refer to. The example verbs under "intransitive prefixes" are not all intransitive, for example, there was an example later in the grammar of 'see' taking an object: mokiimot oku disau 'I should like to see him'.
Moreover, one of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
- valai<n><sta> ↔ muvalai ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
- kadai<n><sta> ↔ mukadai ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
- kabun<n><sta> ↔ mukabun ('garden' → 'be a farmer')
"Transitive Prefixes"
Transitive verbs are those that can take an object. They are conjugated with a prefix (denoting aspect). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.
Verbs in Rungus should be tagged <v>, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as <tv>. One of the aspects is the imperfective <impf>.
1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/ For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).
Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
- panau<v><tv><impf> ↔ mamanau
- babo<v><tv><impf>} ↔ mamabo
- bubul<v><tv><impf> ↔ momubul
- valiu<v><tv><impf> ↔ mamaliu
- vudut<v><tv><impf> ↔ momudut
Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
- taʼud<v><tv><impf> ↔ manaʼud
- tulung<v><tv><impf> ↔ monulung
- sukung<v><tv><impf> ↔ monukung
Stem initial voiceless velars:
- kama<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangama
- kuvo<v><tv><impf> ↔ monguvo
2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/ For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
- duat<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongoduat
- gama<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangagama
- guna<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongoguno
- havol<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangahavol
- ramit<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangaramit
- lobong<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongolobong
- zazak<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangazazak
- malun<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangamalun
- jamin<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangajamin
3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/) For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.
- ido<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongido
- ovit<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongovit
- ada<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangada
- umo<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongumo
Plurals
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.
Pluralizing Nouns
The pluralizing prefix <pl> for singular nouns <n> is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
- valai<n><pl> ↔ ongovalai
- palampag<n><pl> ↔ ongopalampag
- aki<n><pl> ↔ angaki
- idi<n><pl> ↔ ongedi
- ulon<n><pl> ↔ ongulon
- dupot<n><pl> ↔ ongodupot
Collectivizing Nouns
The collectivizing prefix <coll> for singular nouns <n> is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
- ulun<n><coll> ↔ songulun
- anak<n><coll> ↔ sanganak
- riniba<n><coll> ↔ songriniba
Personal Pronouns
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | ioku<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ ioku oku<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ oku |
ikito<prn><pers><p1><du> ↔ ikito kito<prn><pers><p1><du> ↔ kito |
exclusive | inclusive | |
| iokoi<prn><pers><p1><pl><excl> ↔ iokoi okoi<prn><pers><p1><pl><excl> ↔ okoi |
itokou<prn><pers><p1><pl><incl> ↔ itokou tokou<prn><pers><p1><pl><incl> ↔ tokou | ||||
| 2nd | ikau<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ikau ko<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ko |
N/A | ikou<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ ikou kou<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ kou | ||
| 3rd | regular | ialo<prn><pers><p3><sg> ↔ ialo | N/A | iolo<prn><pers><p3><pl> ↔ iolo | |
| referential | iosido<prn><pers><p3><sg><refe> ↔ iosido | ioti<prn><pers><p3><pl><refe> ↔ ioti | |||
Demonstratives
Demonstrative Determiners
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
- i<det><dem> ↔ i
- o<det><dem> ↔ o
- it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ it
- ot<det><dem><ind><nom> ↔ ot
- dit<det><dem><def><acc> ↔ dit
- dot<det><dem><ind><acc> ↔ dot
The two determiners i and o appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the -t may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.
Demonstrative Pronouns
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.
| Proximity | Nominative | Accusative | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|
| proximate | iti<prn><dem><nom><prx><nom> ↔ iti | diti<prn><dem><nom><prx><acc> ↔ diti | siti<prn><dem><nom><prx><loc> ↔ siti |
| less close | ino<prn><dem><nom><dst><nom> ↔ ino | dino<prn><dem><nom><dst><acc> ↔ dino | sino<prn><dem><nom><dst><loc> ↔ sino |
| distant | ilo<prn><dem><nom><dst><nom> ↔ ilo | dilo<prn><dem><nom><dst><acc> ↔ dilo | silo<prn><dem><nom><dst><loc> ↔ silo |
| the aforementioned | iri<prn><dem><nom> ↔ iri | diri<prn><dem><acc> ↔ diri |
The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
- sori<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ sori
- hodi<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ hodi
sori refers to something in the far distance, while hodi refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.
Contractions
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner it:
| Nominative | Accusative | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| iti + it = itit | iti<prn><dem><nom><prx> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ itit | diti + it = ditit | diti<prn><dem><nom><prx> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ ditit |
| ino + it = inot | ino<prn><dem><nom><dst> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ inot | dino + it = dinot | dino<prn><dem><nom><dst> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ dinot |
| ilo + it = ilot | ilo<prn><dem><nom><dst> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ ilot | dilo + it = dilot | dilo<prn><dem><nom><dst> + it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ dilot |
Reduplication
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action (<rec>), e.g., tangkus<v><iv><rec> ↔ mitangkus ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
- panau<v><tv><impf><coll> ↔ mamamanau ('goes' → 'go')
- gama<v><tv><impf><coll> ↔ mamangagama ('works' → 'work')
- tangkus<v><iv><rec><coll> ↔ mitatangkus ('run' → '(all) run')
Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive (<rep>) collective action.
- tangkus<v><iv><rec><coll><rep> ↔ mitatangkus-tangkus ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
- umpug<v><iv><rec><coll><rep> ↔ miuumpug-umpug ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')
Enclitics
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).
1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
- limo<n>+no<enc> ↔ limono ('already five')
- imot<v><p1><sg>+no<enc> ↔ nemotkuno ('already seen by me')
- pongo<v>+no<enc> ↔ nopongono ('always finished')
2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
- limo<n>+po<enc> ↔ limopo ('five more')
- imot<v>+po<enc> ↔ imatai ('seen first')
- pongo<v><neg>+po<enc> ↔ amupo opongo ('not yet finished')
3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
- limo<n>+nopo<enc> ↔ limonopo ('always five')
- emot<adj>+nopo<enc> ↔ emotnopo ('always visible')
- mangatag<v>+nopo<enc> ↔ mangatagnopo ('always repairing')
