Difference between revisions of "Rungus/Grammar"

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==Parts of Speech==
 
==Parts of Speech==
 +
The main parts of speech in Rungus are:
 +
* Nouns {{tag|n}}, e.g., ''ulun'' 'person'
 +
* Verbs {{tag|v}}, e.g., ''imot'' 'to see'
 +
* Adjectives {{tag|adj}}, ''asavat'' 'high'
 +
* Determiners {{tag|det}}, e.g., ''it''
 +
* Pronouns {{tag|prn}}, e.g., ''ioku'' 'I'
 +
* Prepositions {{tag|pr}}. There is only one preposition, ''sid''
 +
* Numerals {{tag|num}}?, e.g., ''limo'', 'five'
 +
 
==Inflectional Morphology==
 
==Inflectional Morphology==
−
===Reduplication===
+
 
 +
===Intransitive Prefixes===
 +
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?).
 +
 
 +
The prefix m- indicates process:
 +
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mimot}} ('see')
 +
*{{morphTest|odop{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|modop}} ('sleep')
 +
*{{morphTest|ogom{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|impf}}|mogom}} ('sit')
 +
 
 +
One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:
 +
*{{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|muvalai}} ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
 +
*{{morphTest|kadai{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukadai}} ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
 +
*{{morphTest|kabun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sta}}|mukabun}} ('garden' → 'be a farmer')
 +
 
 
===Transitive Prefixes===
 
===Transitive Prefixes===
−
In Rungus, transitive verbs are those that can take an object. They are conjugated with a prefix (denoting aspect), and the appropriate personal pronoun is attached to the end (denoting the subject). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.
+
The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.
  
−
Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}. The person tags needed in Rungus are {{tag|p1}}, {{tag|p2}}, and {{tag|p3}}, and the number tags needed are {{tag|sg}} and {{tag|pl}}.
+
Verbs in Rungus should be tagged {{tag|v}}, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as {{tag|tv}}. One of the aspects is the imperfective {{tag|impf}}.  
  
−
====Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/====
+
1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/
 +
For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).
  
 +
Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):
 +
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamanau}}
 +
* {{morphTest|babo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamabo}}
 +
* {{morphTest|bubul{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momubul}}
 +
* {{morphTest|valiu{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mamaliu}}
 +
* {{morphTest|vudut{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|momudut}}
  
−
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|mamanau oku}}
+
Stem initial voiceless alveolars:
 +
* {{morphTest|taʼud{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|manaʼud}}
 +
* {{morphTest|tulung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monulung}}
 +
* {{morphTest|sukung{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monukung}}
  
−
====Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs and /ʔ/, excluding /b/====
+
Stem initial voiceless velars:
 +
* {{morphTest|kama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangama}}
 +
* {{morphTest|kuvo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|monguvo}}
 +
 
 +
2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/
 +
For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.
 +
* {{morphTest|duat{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoduat}}
 +
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangagama}}
 +
* {{morphTest|guna{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongoguno}}
 +
* {{morphTest|havol{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangahavol}}
 +
* {{morphTest|ramit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangaramit}}
 +
* {{morphTest|lobong{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongolobong}}
 +
* {{morphTest|zazak{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangazazak}}
 +
* {{morphTest|malun{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangamalun}}
 +
* {{morphTest|jamin{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangajamin}}
 +
 
 +
3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/)
 +
For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above. 
 +
* {{morphTest|ido{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongido}}
 +
* {{morphTest|ovit{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongovit}}
 +
* {{morphTest|ada{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mangada}}
 +
* {{morphTest|umo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}|mongumo}}
  
 
===Plurals===
 
===Plurals===
−
===Demonstrative Pronouns===
+
Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.
−
===Pronouns===
+
 
−
====Personal Pronouns====
+
====Pluralizing Nouns====
−
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
+
The pluralizing prefix {{tag|pl}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).
 +
* {{morphTest|valai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongovalai}}
 +
* {{morphTest|palampag{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongopalampag}}
 +
* {{morphTest|aki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|angaki}}
 +
* {{morphTest|idi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongedi}}
 +
* {{morphTest|ulon{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongulon}}
 +
* {{morphTest|dupot{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ongodupot}}
 +
 
 +
====Collectivizing Nouns====
 +
The collectivizing prefix {{tag|coll}} for singular nouns {{tag|n}} is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).
 +
* {{morphTest|ulun{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songulun}}
 +
* {{morphTest|anak{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|sanganak}}
 +
* {{morphTest|riniba{{tag|n}}{{tag|coll}}|songriniba}}
 +
 
 +
===Personal Pronouns===
 +
In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.
 +
 
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
! colspan="2" | Person
 +
! Singular
 +
! Dual
 +
! colspan="2" | Plural
 +
|-
 +
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st
 +
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ioku}}<br/>{{morphTest|oku{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|oku}}
 +
| rowspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|ikito}}<br/>{{morphTest|kito{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}|kito}}
 +
| exclusive
 +
| inclusive
 +
|-
 +
| {{morphTest|iokoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|iokoi}}<br/>{{morphTest|okoi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|okoi}}
 +
| {{morphTest|itokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|itokou}}<br/>{{morphTest|tokou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|tokou}}
 +
|-
 +
| colspan="2" | 2nd
 +
| {{morphTest|ikau{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ikau}}<br/>{{morphTest|ko{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|ko}}
 +
| N/A
 +
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ikou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|ikou}}<br/>{{morphTest|kou{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kou}}
 +
|-
 +
| rowspan="2" | 3rd
 +
| regular
 +
| {{morphTest|ialo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|ialo}}
 +
| rowspan="2" | N/A
 +
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|iolo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|iolo}}
 +
|-
 +
| referential
 +
| {{morphTest|iosido{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|refe}}|iosido}}
 +
| colspan="2" | {{morphTest|ioti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|refe}}|ioti}}
 +
|}
  
−
===Articles===
+
===Demonstratives===
−
There are six articles in Rungus:
+
====Demonstrative Determiners====
 +
There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):
 
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
 
* {{morphTest|i{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|i}}
 
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
 
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}|o}}
Line 30: Line 131:
  
 
The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.
 
The two determiners ''i'' and ''o'' appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the ''-t'' may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.
 +
 +
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
 +
There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.
 +
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
! Proximity
 +
! Nominative
 +
! Accusative
 +
! Locative
 +
|-
 +
| proximate
 +
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|nom}}|iti}}
 +
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|acc}}|diti}}
 +
| {{morphTest|siti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|prx}}{{tag|loc}}|siti}}
 +
|-
 +
| less close
 +
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ino}}
 +
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dino}}
 +
| {{morphTest|sino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sino}}
 +
|-
 +
| distant
 +
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|nom}}|ilo}}
 +
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|acc}}|dilo}}
 +
| {{morphTest|silo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|silo}}
 +
|-
 +
| the aforementioned
 +
| {{morphTest|iri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}|iri}}
 +
| {{morphTest|diri{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}|diri}}
 +
|}
 +
 +
The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:
 +
* {{morphTest|sori{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|sori}}
 +
* {{morphTest|hodi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|dst}}{{tag|loc}}|hodi}}
 +
''sori'' refers to something in the far distance, while ''hodi'' refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.
 +
 +
====Contractions====
 +
Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner ''it'':
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
!! colspan="2"| Nominative !! colspan="2" | Accusative
 +
|-
 +
| iti + it = itit
 +
| {{morphTest|iti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|prx}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|itit}}
 +
| diti + it = ditit
 +
| {{morphTest|diti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|prx}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ditit}}
 +
|-
 +
| ino + it = inot
 +
| {{morphTest|ino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|inot}}
 +
| dino + it = dinot
 +
| {{morphTest|dino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dinot}}
 +
|-
 +
| ilo + it = ilot
 +
| {{morphTest|ilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|ilot}}
 +
| dilo + it = dilot
 +
| {{morphTest|dilo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|dst}}+it{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|nom}}|dilot}}
 +
|}
 +
 +
===Reduplication===
 +
Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action ({{tag|rec}}), e.g., {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}|mitangkus}} ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.
 +
* {{morphTest|panau{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamamanau}} ('goes' → 'go')
 +
* {{morphTest|gama{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|coll}}|mamangagama}} ('works' → 'work')
 +
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}|mitatangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run')
 +
 +
Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive ({{tag|rep}}) collective action.
 +
* {{morphTest|tangkus{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|mitatangkus-tangkus}} ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
 +
* {{morphTest|umpug{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|rec}}{{tag|coll}}{{tag|rep}}|miuumpug-umpug}} ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')
  
 
===Enclitics===
 
===Enclitics===
−
====Perfective====
+
There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).
−
Enclitics of realisation -no = already
 
−
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}{{tag|perf}}|limono}} ('already five')
 
−
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
 
−
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')
 
  
−
====Imperfective====
+
1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already
−
Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
+
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+no{{tag|enc}}|limono}} ('already five')
−
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}{{tag|imperf}}|limopo}} ('five more')
+
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nemotkuno}} ('already seen by me')
−
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}{{tag|imperf}}|imatai}} ('seen first')
+
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}+no{{tag|enc}}|nopongono}} ('always finished')
−
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|imperf}}{{tag|neg}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')
 
  
 +
2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet
 +
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+po{{tag|enc}}|limopo}} ('five more')
 +
*{{morphTest|imot{{tag|v}}+po{{tag|enc}}|imataipo}} ('seen first')
 +
*{{morphTest|pongo{{tag|v}}{{tag|neg}}+po{{tag|enc}}|amupo opongo}} ('not yet finished')
  
−
====Progressive====
+
3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
−
Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always
+
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
−
*{{morphTest|limo{{tag|n}}{{tag|}}|limonopo}} ('always five')
+
*{{morphTest|emot{{tag|adj}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|emotnopo}} ('always visible')
 +
*{{morphTest|mangatag{{tag|v}}+nopo{{tag|enc}}|mangatagnopo}} ('always repairing')
  
−
===Aspects===
 
  
 
[[Category:Rungus]]
 
[[Category:Rungus]]
 
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]
 
[[Category:Sp25_GrammarDocumentation]]

Latest revision as of 22:54, 6 March 2025

Parts of Speech

The main parts of speech in Rungus are:

  • Nouns <n>, e.g., ulun 'person'
  • Verbs <v>, e.g., imot 'to see'
  • Adjectives <adj>, asavat 'high'
  • Determiners <det>, e.g., it
  • Pronouns <prn>, e.g., ioku 'I'
  • Prepositions <pr>. There is only one preposition, sid
  • Numerals <num>?, e.g., limo, 'five'

Inflectional Morphology

Intransitive Prefixes

The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?).

The prefix m- indicates process:

  • imot<v><iv><impf> ↔ mimot ('see')
  • odop<v><iv><impf> ↔ modop ('sleep')
  • ogom<v><iv><impf> ↔ mogom ('sit')

One of the prefixes listed under "intransitive prefixes" seem to be both aspect-marking and possibly derivational. According to the author, the prefix mu- indicates state of being:

  • valai<n><sta> ↔ muvalai ('house' → 'build a house (be a house builder?)')
  • kadai<n><sta> ↔ mukadai ('shop' → 'keep a shop (be a shopkeeper?)')
  • kabun<n><sta> ↔ mukabun ('garden' → 'be a farmer')

Transitive Prefixes

The intransitive and transitive prefixes indicate the valency of the verb (and also aspects?). The prefixes themselves are determined by phonological stipulations of the stem.

Verbs in Rungus should be tagged <v>, and transitive verbs can be subcategorized as <tv>. One of the aspects is the imperfective <impf>.

1. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiceless Cs and /b/ For stems with initial voiceless consonants, the prefix «mo» (var. «ma») is attached. The /o/ in the prefix assimilates to /a/ if the first vowel in the stem is /a/. The stem initial C then becomes either /m/ or /n/, depending on POA (e.g. /p/ becomes /m/, while /t/ becomes /n/ and /k/ becomes /ŋ/).

Stem initial voiceless bilabials/labiodentals (and /b/):

  • panau<v><tv><impf> ↔ mamanau
  • babo<v><tv><impf> ↔ mamabo
  • bubul<v><tv><impf> ↔ momubul
  • valiu<v><tv><impf> ↔ mamaliu
  • vudut<v><tv><impf> ↔ momudut

Stem initial voiceless alveolars:

  • taʼud<v><tv><impf> ↔ manaʼud
  • tulung<v><tv><impf> ↔ monulung
  • sukung<v><tv><impf> ↔ monukung

Stem initial voiceless velars:

  • kama<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangama
  • kuvo<v><tv><impf> ↔ monguvo

2. Prefixation on Stem Initial Voiced Cs, excluding /b/ For stems with initial voiced consonants, the prefix «mongo» (var. «manga») is attached. The /o/s in the prefix assimilate to /a/s if first vowel in the stem is /a/, as demonstrated by previous examples.

  • duat<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongoduat
  • gama<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangagama
  • guna<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongoguno
  • havol<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangahavol
  • ramit<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangaramit
  • lobong<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongolobong
  • zazak<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangazazak
  • malun<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangamalun
  • jamin<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangajamin

3. Prefixation on Stem Initial Vs (technically /ʔ/) For stems with initial vowels (which are phonetically articulated to begin with the glottal stop /ʔ/), the prefix «mong» (var. «mang») is attached with the same phonological stipulations as above.

  • ido<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongido
  • ovit<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongovit
  • ada<v><tv><impf> ↔ mangada
  • umo<v><tv><impf> ↔ mongumo

Plurals

Plural nouns are formed in Rungus by adding a pluralizing prefix to a noun stem. A collectivizing stem may be added instead to form a collective noun.

Pluralizing Nouns

The pluralizing prefix <pl> for singular nouns <n> is «ongo» (var. «anga» if the stem begins with /a/). Additionally, the second vowel in the prefix may contract with a stem initial vowel according to Rungus vowel contraction rules (namely, /a/+/a/=[a], /o/+/u/=[u], /o/+/o/=[o], and /o/+/i/=[e]).

  • valai<n><pl> ↔ ongovalai
  • palampag<n><pl> ↔ ongopalampag
  • aki<n><pl> ↔ angaki
  • idi<n><pl> ↔ ongedi
  • ulon<n><pl> ↔ ongulon
  • dupot<n><pl> ↔ ongodupot

Collectivizing Nouns

The collectivizing prefix <coll> for singular nouns <n> is «song» (var. «sang» if the stem begins with /a/).

  • ulun<n><coll> ↔ songulun
  • anak<n><coll> ↔ sanganak
  • riniba<n><coll> ↔ songriniba

Personal Pronouns

In Rungus, personal pronouns are distinguished by person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular, plural; dual in first person), inclusivity/exclusivity in first person plural (inclusive, exclusive), and referentiality in third person (whether the referent has/have already been talked about). Rungus pronouns in first and second person have two forms, stressed and unstressed, but it seems to be a phonological distinction rather than a grammatical one.

Person Singular Dual Plural
1st ioku<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ ioku
oku<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ oku 		ikito<prn><pers><p1><du> ↔ ikito
kito<prn><pers><p1><du> ↔ kito 		exclusive inclusive
iokoi<prn><pers><p1><pl><excl> ↔ iokoi
okoi<prn><pers><p1><pl><excl> ↔ okoi 		itokou<prn><pers><p1><pl><incl> ↔ itokou
tokou<prn><pers><p1><pl><incl> ↔ tokou
2nd ikau<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ikau
ko<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ko 		N/A ikou<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ ikou
kou<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ kou
3rd regular ialo<prn><pers><p3><sg> ↔ ialo N/A iolo<prn><pers><p3><pl> ↔ iolo
referential iosido<prn><pers><p3><sg><refe> ↔ iosido ioti<prn><pers><p3><pl><refe> ↔ ioti

Demonstratives

Demonstrative Determiners

There are six articles in Rungus, differentiated by definiteness (definite, indefinite) and case (nominative, accusative):

  • i<det><dem> ↔ i
  • o<det><dem> ↔ o
  • it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ it
  • ot<det><dem><ind><nom> ↔ ot
  • dit<det><dem><def><acc> ↔ dit
  • dot<det><dem><ind><acc> ↔ dot

The two determiners i and o appear respectively before proper names and vocative terms. Additionally, the -t may be optionally deleted from the other articles, especially before consonants.

Demonstrative Pronouns

There are thirteen demonstrative pronouns in Rungus, differentiated by proximity (proximal, distal) and case (nominative, accusative, locative). The table displays eleven of them.

Proximity Nominative Accusative Locative
proximate iti<prn><dem><prx><nom> ↔ iti diti<prn><dem><prx><acc> ↔ diti siti<prn><dem><prx><loc> ↔ siti
less close ino<prn><dem><dst><nom> ↔ ino dino<prn><dem><dst><acc> ↔ dino sino<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ sino
distant ilo<prn><dem><dst><nom> ↔ ilo dilo<prn><dem><dst><acc> ↔ dilo silo<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ silo
the aforementioned iri<prn><dem><nom> ↔ iri diri<prn><dem><acc> ↔ diri

The demonstrative pronouns with locative case do not have a corresponding word that refers to the aforementioned, but rather has two other pronouns that refer to things further and further into the distance:

  • sori<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ sori
  • hodi<prn><dem><dst><loc> ↔ hodi

sori refers to something in the far distance, while hodi refers to something in the general vicinity that is still visible.

Contractions

Certain demonstrative pronouns with nominative and accusative case can be contracted with the demonstrative determiner it:

Nominative Accusative
iti + it = itit iti<prn><dem><nom><prx>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ itit diti + it = ditit diti<prn><dem><acc><prx>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ ditit
ino + it = inot ino<prn><dem><nom><dst>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ inot dino + it = dinot dino<prn><dem><acc><dst>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ dinot
ilo + it = ilot ilo<prn><dem><nom><dst>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ ilot dilo + it = dilot dilo<prn><dem><acc><dst>+it<det><dem><def><nom> ↔ dilot

Reduplication

Reduplication of first stem syllable (with the phonological stipulations in the section "transitive prefixes") expresses collective action. Note the third example, where the stem already indicates a reciprocal/reflexive/dual action (<rec>), e.g., tangkus<v><iv><rec> ↔ mitangkus ('run (together)')), but it could still become collective via reduplication, indicating that collective is distinct from plural/dual/etc.

  • panau<v><tv><impf><coll> ↔ mamamanau ('goes' → 'go')
  • gama<v><tv><impf><coll> ↔ mamangagama ('works' → 'work')
  • tangkus<v><iv><rec><coll> ↔ mitatangkus ('run' → '(all) run')

Reduplication of the stem expresses repetitive (<rep>) collective action.

  • tangkus<v><iv><rec><coll><rep> ↔ mitatangkus-tangkus ('run' → '(all) run again and again')
  • umpug<v><iv><rec><coll><rep> ↔ miuumpug-umpug ('gather' → '(all) gather again and again')

Enclitics

There are several enclitics in Rungus, all of which seem to have aspectual meanings ("describe time of action", as stated by the author).

1. Enclitics of realisation -no = already

  • limo<n>+no<enc> ↔ limono ('already five')
  • imot<v><p1><sg>+no<enc> ↔ nemotkuno ('already seen by me')
  • pongo<v>+no<enc> ↔ nopongono ('always finished')

2. Enclitics of expectation -po = still more, yet

  • limo<n>+po<enc> ↔ limopo ('five more')
  • imot<v>+po<enc> ↔ imataipo ('seen first')
  • pongo<v><neg>+po<enc> ↔ amupo opongo ('not yet finished')

3. Enclitics of continuation -nopo = already started, not yet completed, always

  • limo<n>+nopo<enc> ↔ limonopo ('always five')
  • emot<adj>+nopo<enc> ↔ emotnopo ('always visible')
  • mangatag<v>+nopo<enc> ↔ mangatagnopo ('always repairing')
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