Difference between revisions of "Ainu/Grammar"

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== Parts of Speech ==
 
== Parts of Speech ==
−
=== Verb ===
 
−
Because Verbs in Ainu {{tag|vblex}} have only the indicative mood {{tag|pri}}, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense {{tag|pres}} continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs {{tag|vaux}} «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.
 
  
−
*{{morphTest|クキㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pres}}|クキㇰシリネ}} ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")
+
=== Determiner ===
  
−
=== Pronoun ===
+
There are three determiner classes in Ainu: numeral determiners ({{tag|ndet}}), nominal demonstratives ({{tag|ndom}}), and anaphoric demonstratives ({{tag|adom}}). It is typologically interesting that in Ainu, all determiners must be prenominal and cannot be an NP by themselves.
−
Ainu has 5 pronoun {{tag|pn}} classes: personal, possessive, relative, indefinite, and interrogative.  
 
  
−
Personal pronouns are divided into first person singular {{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} and second person singular {{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}. The first person singular pronoun start with «k» and can be used by male or female speakers:
+
*{{morphTest|チセ{{tag|n}}{{tag|ndom}}|タン チセ}} ("this house")
 +
*{{morphTest|チセ{{tag|n}}{{tag|ndet}}|ト゚ チセ}} ("this house")
 +
*{{morphTest|ト゚ㇷ゚{{tag|bn}}{{tag|ndet}}|ト゚ㇷ゚}} ("two things")
  
−
*{{morphTest|クアニ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|クアニ}} (this and the following three pronouns mean "I")
+
=== Verb ===
−
*{{morphTest|カニ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|カニ}}
+
Because Verbs in Ainu {{tag|vblex}} have only the indicative mood {{tag|pri}}, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense {{tag|pres}} continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs {{tag|vaux}} «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.
−
*{{morphTest|アノカィ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|アノカィ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|チョカィ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|チョカィ}}
 
  
−
The second person singular pronouns are «エ»- (for verb attachment), «エアニ», «ヤニ», «アオカィ», and «アノカィ»:
+
*{{morphTest|クキㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pres}}|クキㇰシリネ}} ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")
  
−
*{{morphTest|エアニ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|エアニ}} (this and the following three pronouns mean "you")
+
Verbs are split into four classes based on valency: zero-argument verbs ({{tag|av}}), intransitive verbs ({{tag|iv}}), transitive verbs ({{tag|tv}}), and the copula ({{tag|cop}}). While other languages have a separate class for adjectives, Ainu expresses adjectival content through intransitive verbs.
−
*{{morphTest|ヤニ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|ヤニ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|アオカィ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|アオカィ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|アノカィ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|mf}}|アノカィ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ライケ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}|エライケ}} ("raige = to kill" becomes "you kill")
 
−
*{{morphTest|アㇷ゚カㇱ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}|エアㇷ゚カㇱ}} ("to walk" becomes "you walk")
 
  
−
The third person {{tag|p3}} pronoun is instead replaced with «シロマ», «シヌマ», and demonstrative adjectives, to mean "he; she; it", with no regard for animacy.
+
Zero-argument verbs are meteorological predicates, most of which contain the subject シㇼ ("appearance/land"):
  
−
Possessive pronouns employ the use of «コロ» to the personal pronoun (using {{tag|px1sg}} for first person singular possessive, {{tag|px2sg}} for second person singular possessive, {{tag|px1pl}} for first person plural possessive, and {{tag|px2pl}} for second person plural possessive):
+
*{{morphTest|シㇼピㇼカ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|av}}|シㇼピㇼカ}} ("it is good weather")
  
−
*{{morphTest|ク{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1sg}}{{tag|mf}}|クコロ}}
+
Intransitive verbs take S series verbal affixes, transitive verbs take A and O series affixes, and the copula ネ takes A series markers but not O series.
−
*{{morphTest|エ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px2sg}}{{tag|mf}}|エコロ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|チ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1pl}}{{tag|mf}}|チコロ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|エチ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px2pl}}{{tag|mf}}|エチコロ}}
 
  
−
Note that sometimes the particle «a» is prefixed with the verb «コロ» ("to possess") to indicate first person plural possessive when place before nouns:
+
*{{morphTest|ネ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|cop}}|ネ}} ("be/become")
  
−
*{{morphTest|ミチ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1pl}}|アコロ ミチ}} ("father" becomes "our father")
+
=== Pronoun ===
−
*{{morphTest|ニㇱパ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1pl}}|アコン ニㇱパ}} ("master" becomes "our master")
 
−
*{{morphTest|エカシ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1pl}}|アコロ エカシ}} ("ancestors" becomes "our ancestors")
 
−
*{{morphTest|ペ{{tag|pn}}{{tag|px1pl}}|アコロペ}} ("things" becomes "our things")
 
  
−
This is possibly because «アコロ» is the polite mode of speech replacing «エコロ» described above.
 
  
 
=== Adverb ===
 
=== Adverb ===
Line 55: Line 40:
 
Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag {{tag|det}} to denote determiner and {{tag|ind}} to denote indefiniteness.
 
Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag {{tag|det}} to denote determiner and {{tag|ind}} to denote indefiniteness.
  
−
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネアイヌ}} ("a man")
+
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ アイヌ}} ("a man")
−
*{{morphTest|チセイ{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネチセイ}} ("a house")
+
*{{morphTest|チセイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ チセイ}} ("a house")
−
*{{morphTest|チコイキㇷ゚{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネチコイキㇷ゚}} ("an animal")
+
*{{morphTest|チコイキㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ チコイキㇷ゚}} ("an animal")
  
 
However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag {{tag|sg}}) varying by context:
 
However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag {{tag|sg}}) varying by context:
−
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|sg}}|シネアイヌ}} ("one man")
+
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ アイヌ}} ("one man")
−
*{{morphTest|シウェンテㇷ゚{{tag|sg}}|シネシウェンテㇷ゚}} ("one woman")
+
*{{morphTest|シウェンテㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ シウェンテㇷ゚}} ("one woman")
  
 
For the definite article ({{tag|def}} the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:
 
For the definite article ({{tag|def}} the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:
−
*{{morphTest|クル{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイクル}} ("(the) person")
+
*{{morphTest|クル{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイ クル}} ("(the) person")
−
*{{morphTest|チェㇷ゚{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイチェㇷ゚}} ("(the) fish")
+
*{{morphTest|チェㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイ チェㇷ゚}} ("(the) fish")
  
 
=== Noun ===  
 
=== Noun ===  
Line 72: Line 57:
  
 
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}|アイヌ}}
 
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}|アイヌ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイヌウタラ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイヌ ウタラ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネアイヌ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ アイヌ}}
  
−
=== Adjective ===
+
Nouns are classified into three categories: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns. Common nouns are further divided into "conceptual" {{tag|conc}} and "possessive" {{tag|pos}} forms. The possessive forms have suffixes for possession, and prefixes "of the A (= transitive subject) series to cross-reference the possessor"(Bugaeva, 470). We will use the tags {{tag|cn}}, {{tag|rn}}, and {{tag|bn}} to denote common, relational, and bound nouns, respectively.
  
−
There are two types of adjectives {{tag|adj}} in Ainu, simple and compound. Both can express number. There are at least 15 adjectival endings for simple adjectives. Some examples include:
+
*{{morphTest|シㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|cn}}{{tag|pos}}|クシㇰイヒ}} ("my eye")
  
−
*{{morphTest|ヘㇰ{{tag|adj}}|ヘカイ}}
+
Relational nouns take the place of adverbs and prepositions from European languages to express spatial/temporal relations. They have conceptual and possessive forms but relational nouns are marked for person/number of the possessor with object prefixes.
−
*{{morphTest|シセ{{tag|adj}}|シサㇰ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ラ{{tag|adj}}|ラㇺ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|レタ{{tag|adj}}|レタラ}}
 
  
−
For compound adjectives, the endings are «アン», «コロ», «ネ», «ネイ», «オ», «サㇰ», «テㇰ», «ウン», and «ウㇱ»:
+
*{{morphTest|サㇺ{{tag|n}}{{tag|rn}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|エンサㇺ}} ("near me")
  
−
*{{morphTest|ケラ{{tag|adj}}|ケラアン}}
+
However, there are no prefixes for 3rd person nouns, and possessive suffixes are only for 3rd person animate {{tag|aa}} possessors:
−
*{{morphTest|ハロ{{tag|adj}}|ハロコロ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ラム{{tag|adj}}|ラムサㇰ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ヌチャㇰ{{tag|adj}}|ヌチャㇰテㇰ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|アㇱカン{{tag|adj}}|アㇱカンネ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|パロ{{tag|adj}}|パロウン}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ケㇺ{{tag|adj}}|ケㇺウㇱ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|キ{{tag|adj}}|キオ}}
 
  
−
== Adjective Comparison ==
+
*{{morphTest|サㇺ{{tag|n}}{{tag|rn}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|メノコ サㇺア}} ("near the woman")
−
Often in Ainu adjectival degree is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the word «ナア» can be used before the adjective {{tag|adj}} in question to mark the comparative form {{tag|comp}}, and «イヨッタ» can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form {{tag|sup}}:
 
  
−
*{{morphTest|ピリカ{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|ナアピリカ}}
+
Bound nouns can't occur by themselves and must be modified with either a noun, determiner, or relative clause. There are only six of these: クㇽ ("person") ウタㇽ ("people") ウㇱケ/ウㇱケヘ ("(the) place/time (of)") ペ/ㇷ゚ ("thing/person") ヒケ ("the one/side") ヒ/イ ("place/time").
−
*{{morphTest|ピリカ{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|イヨッタピリカ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|ナアポン}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|イヨッタポン}}
 
  
−
== Adjective Pluralization ==  
+
== Comparison ==
−
Adjectives {{tag|adj}} may be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with the suffix plural particle «パ»:
+
Often in Ainu, degree of a intransitive verb (in what would be the adjective's role in a European language) is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the adverb «ナア» can be used before the intransitive verb {{tag|adj}} in question to mark the comparative form {{tag|comp}}, and «イヨッタ» can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form {{tag|sup}}:
  
−
*{{morphTest|ピリカ{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|ピリカパ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ピㇼカ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|comp}}|ナア ピㇼカ}}
−
*{{morphTest|ウェン{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|ウェンパ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ピㇼカ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|sup}}|イヨッタ ピㇼカ}}
−
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|ポンパ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|comp}}|ナア ポン}}
−
*{{morphTest|ハロコロ{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|ハロコロパ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|sup}}|イヨッタ ポン}}
  
−
== Adjectivalization ==
+
== Verb Pluralization ==  
 +
Verbs {{tag|adj}} may be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with the suffix plural particle «パ»:
  
−
The prefix «チ» attaches to transitive verbs {{tag|tv}} to make them passive where they act as adjectives. I will use the tag {{tag|adjx}} to denote adjectivalization.
+
*{{morphTest|ピㇼカ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pl}}|ピㇼカパ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ウェン{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pl}}|ウェンパ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ポン{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pl}}|ポンパ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ハロコロ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pl}}|ハロコロパ}}
  
−
*{{morphTest|アマ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|adjx}}|チアマ}}
+
== Passivization ==
−
*{{morphTest|クパ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|adjx}}|チクパ}}
+
 
−
*{{morphTest|ペレパ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|adjx}}|チペレパ}}
+
The prefix «チ» attaches to transitive verbs {{tag|tv}} to make them passive where they act as adjectives. I will use the tag {{tag|pasv1}} to denote passivization.
−
*{{morphTest|テレケ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|adjx}}|チテレケ}}
+
 
−
*{{morphTest|イェ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|adjx}}|チイェ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アマ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pasv1}}|チアマ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|クパ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pasv1}}|チクパ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ペレパ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pasv1}}|チペレパ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|テレケ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pasv1}}|チテレケ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|イェ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pasv1}}|チイェ}}
  
 
== Diminuitive ==  
 
== Diminuitive ==  
−
In Ainu, «ポ» marks the diminutive particle, denoted as {{tag|dim}}
+
In Ainu, «ポ» marks the diminutive particle, denoted as {{tag|dim}}. It can be attached to verbs or nouns.
  
 
*{{morphTest|イセ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|dim}}|イセポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|イセ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|dim}}|イセポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|ポンペ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|ポンペポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|ポンペ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|ポンペポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チカㇷ゚ポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チカㇷ゚ポ}}
−
*{{morphTest|オッカイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|オッカイポ}}
+
*{{morphTest|オッカィ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|オッカィポ}}
−
*{{morphTest|チイカナイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チイカナイポ}}
+
*{{morphTest|チイカナィ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チイカナィポ}}
−
*{{morphTest|チㇱナイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チㇱナイポ}}
+
*{{morphTest|チㇱナィ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|チㇱナィポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|ト゚カラ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|ト゚カラポ}}
 
*{{morphTest|ト゚カラ{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|ト゚カラポ}}
  
Line 140: Line 119:
  
 
== Nominalizing ==
 
== Nominalizing ==
−
In Ainu, adding the morpheme «イ», «ヒ», or «アㇺペ» to adjectives {{tag|adj}} or verbs {{tag|vblex}} can express abstract qualities {{tag|abs}}:
+
In Ainu, adding the morpheme «イ» or «ヒ»to adjectives {{tag|adj}} or verbs {{tag|vblex}} can express abstract qualities {{tag|abs}}:
−
 
 
−
*{{morphTest|ヌペキ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|ヌペキイ}} ("bright" becomes "brightness"
 
−
*{{morphTest|ヌペキ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|ヌペキヒ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|ヌペキ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|ヌペキアㇺペ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|イタㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|イタㇰイ}} ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
 
−
*{{morphTest|イタㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|イタㇰヒ}}
 
−
*{{morphTest|イタㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|イタㇰアㇺペ}}
 
  
−
Adding the suffix «ペ» (realized as «ㇷ゚») to adjectives {{tag|adj}} can nominalize them {{tag|n}} to mean "an {{tag|adj}} thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pass}} to mean "thing that is {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pass}}":
+
*{{morphTest|ヌペキ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nx}}{{tag|abs}}|ヌペキ イ}} ("bright" becomes "brightness"
 +
*{{morphTest|ヌペキ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nx}}{{tag|abs}}|ヌペキ ヒ}}
 +
*{{morphTest|イタㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|nx}}{{tag|abs}}|イタㇰ イ}} ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
 +
*{{morphTest|イタㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|nx}}{{tag|abs}}|イタㇰ ヒ}}
  
−
*{{morphTest|パセ{{tag|n}}|パセㇷ゚}} ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
+
Adding the suffix «ペ» (realized as «ㇷ゚») to adjectives {{tag|adj}} can nominalize them {{tag|n}} to mean "an {{tag|adj}} thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv2}} to mean "thing that is {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv2}}":
−
*{{morphTest|ポロ{{tag|n}}|ポロㇷ゚}} ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
 
−
*{{morphTest|アエ{{tag|n}}|アエㇷ゚}} ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
 
−
*{{morphTest|アイェ{{tag|n}}|アイェㇷ゚}} ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")
 
  
 +
*{{morphTest|パセ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nx}}|パセ ㇷ゚}} ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
 +
*{{morphTest|ポロ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nx}}|ポロ ㇷ゚}} ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
 +
*{{morphTest|エ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv1}}{{tag|nx}}|アエ ㇷ゚}} ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
 +
*{{morphTest|イェ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv1}}{{tag|nx}}|アイェ ㇷ゚}} ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")
  
 
== Noun Gender ==  
 
== Noun Gender ==  
Line 163: Line 139:
 
When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «ピンネ "male" or «マㇳネ» "female" are placed before it:
 
When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «ピンネ "male" or «マㇳネ» "female" are placed before it:
  
−
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|ピンネチカㇷ゚}} ("a cock")  
+
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|ピンネ チカㇷ゚}} ("a cock")  
−
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|マㇳネチカㇷ゚}} ("a hen")
+
*{{morphTest|チカㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|マㇳネ チカㇷ゚}} ("a hen")
−
*{{morphTest|セタ{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|ピンネセタ}} ("a dog")  
+
*{{morphTest|セタ{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|ピンネ セタ}} ("a dog")  
−
*{{morphTest|セタ{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|マㇳネセタ}} ("a bitch")
+
*{{morphTest|セタ{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|マㇳネ セタ}} ("a bitch")
  
 
For human beings/gods, the word «オッカイ»/«オッカイヨ» "male" replaces «ピンネ»:
 
For human beings/gods, the word «オッカイ»/«オッカイヨ» "male" replaces «ピンネ»:
  
−
*{{morphTest|カムィ{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|オッカイカムィ}}
+
*{{morphTest|カムィ{{tag|n}}{{tag|mg}}|オッカイ カムィ}}
  
 
== Noun number ==  
 
== Noun number ==  
Line 176: Line 152:
 
Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix (or possibly separate word) «ウタラ», «ウタレ», or «ウタリ».
 
Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix (or possibly separate word) «ウタラ», «ウタレ», or «ウタリ».
  
−
*{{morphTest|アイアイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイアイウタラ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アイアイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイアイ ウタラ}}
−
*{{morphTest|ウㇺマ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ウㇺマウタラ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ウㇺマ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ウㇺマ ウタラ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイヌウタラ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイヌ ウタラ}}
  
 
Additionally, the morpheme «ウ» is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality
 
Additionally, the morpheme «ウ» is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality
Line 204: Line 180:
  
 
== Noun affinity ==
 
== Noun affinity ==
−
In Ainu, the suffixes «ポ», トノケ indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary way {{tag|endear}}, akin to "my dear", while «nishpake» can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way {{tag|honor}}, akin to "my honored" in English:
+
In Ainu, the suffixes «ポ» ({{tag|end2}}, トノケ ({{tag|end1}}) indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary or endearing way (thus the use of "end", short for endear), akin to "my dear", while «ニㇱパケ» can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way {{tag|hon}}, akin to "my honored" in English:
  
−
*{{morphTest|アㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アㇰポ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end2}}|アㇰ ポ}}
−
*{{morphTest|ト゚レㇱ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|ト゚レㇱポ}}
+
*{{morphTest|ト゚レㇱ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end2}}|ト゚レㇱ ポ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アアㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アアㇰトノケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アアㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end1}}|アアㇰ トノケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アポホ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アポホトノケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アポホ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end1}}|アポホ トノケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アニㇱ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アニㇱトノケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アニㇱ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end1}}|アニㇱ トノケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アユポ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アユポトノケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アユポ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end1}}|アユポ トノケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アミチ{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|アミチトノケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アミチ{{tag|n}}{{tag|end1}}|アミチ トノケ}}
  
−
*{{morphTest|アユポ{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|アユポニㇱパケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アユポ{{tag|n}}{{tag|hon}}|アユポ ニㇱパケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アアㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|アアㇰニㇱパケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アアㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|hon}}|アアㇰ ニㇱパケ}}
−
*{{morphTest|アトノ{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|アトノニㇱパケ}}
+
*{{morphTest|アトノ{{tag|n}}{{tag|hon}}|アトノ ニㇱパケ}}
  
 
== Verbalization ==  
 
== Verbalization ==  
Line 229: Line 205:
  
 
== Verb Passification ==
 
== Verb Passification ==
−
The particle «ア» in Ainu can sometimes signify the passive voice {{tag|pasv}} when placed before a verb {{tag|vblex}}:
+
The particle «ア» in Ainu can sometimes signify the passive voice {{tag|pasv2}} when placed before a verb {{tag|vblex}}:
  
−
*{{morphTest|ヌ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv}}|アヌ}} ("to hear" becomes "to be heard")
+
*{{morphTest|ヌ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv2}}|アヌ}} ("to hear" becomes "to be heard")
−
*{{morphTest|ヌイェ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv}}|アヌイェ}} ("to write" becomes "to be written")
+
*{{morphTest|ヌイェ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv2}}|アヌイェ}} ("to write" becomes "to be written")
−
*{{morphTest|ライケ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv}}|アライケ}} ("to kill" becomes "to be killed")
+
*{{morphTest|ライケ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pasv2}}|アライケ}} ("to kill" becomes "to be killed")
  
 
However, «ア» doesn't always signify this, and there are cases where it is used more like a post-position.
 
However, «ア» doesn't always signify this, and there are cases where it is used more like a post-position.
  
 
== Verb Transitivity ==  
 
== Verb Transitivity ==  
−
The particle «エ» can make an intransitive verb {{tag|iv}} into a transitive one {{tag|tv}} when used as a prefix:
+
The particle «エ» can make an intransitive verb {{tag|iv}} into a transitive one (using the make-transitive tag {{tag|tvx}} when used as a prefix:
  
−
*{{morphTest|キラ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}|エキラ}} ("to run away" becomes "to run away with")
+
*{{morphTest|キラ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|tvx}}|エキラ}} ("to run away" becomes "to run away with")
−
*{{morphTest|ミㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}|エミㇰ}} ("to bark" becomes "to bark at")
+
*{{morphTest|ミㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|tvx}}|エミㇰ}} ("to bark" becomes "to bark at")
−
*{{morphTest|ミナ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tv}}|エミナ}} ("to laugh" becomes "to laugh at")
+
*{{morphTest|ミナ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|tvx}}|エミナ}} ("to laugh" becomes "to laugh at")
  
 
== Letter changes ==
 
== Letter changes ==

Latest revision as of 00:00, 27 February 2017

Parts of Speech

Determiner

There are three determiner classes in Ainu: numeral determiners (<ndet>), nominal demonstratives (<ndom>), and anaphoric demonstratives (<adom>). It is typologically interesting that in Ainu, all determiners must be prenominal and cannot be an NP by themselves.

  • チセ<n><ndom> ↔ タン チセ ("this house")
  • チセ<n><ndet> ↔ ト゚ チセ ("this house")
  • ト゚ㇷ゚<bn><ndet> ↔ ト゚ㇷ゚ ("two things")

Verb

Because Verbs in Ainu <vblex> have only the indicative mood <pri>, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense <pres> continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs <vaux> «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.

  • クキㇰ<vblex><vaux><pres> ↔ クキㇰシリネ ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")

Verbs are split into four classes based on valency: zero-argument verbs (<av>), intransitive verbs (<iv>), transitive verbs (<tv>), and the copula (<cop>). While other languages have a separate class for adjectives, Ainu expresses adjectival content through intransitive verbs.

Zero-argument verbs are meteorological predicates, most of which contain the subject シㇼ ("appearance/land"):

  • シㇼピㇼカ<vblex><av> ↔ シㇼピㇼカ ("it is good weather")

Intransitive verbs take S series verbal affixes, transitive verbs take A and O series affixes, and the copula ネ takes A series markers but not O series.

  • ネ<vblex><cop> ↔ ネ ("be/become")

Pronoun

Adverb

Adverbs in Ainu <adv> seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:

  • アシリ<adv> ↔ アシンノ ("new" becomes "newly")
  • ソン<adv> ↔ ソンノ ("true" becomes "truly")
  • モイレ<adv> ↔ モイレタラ ("slow" becomes "slowly")
  • ラチ<adv> ↔ ラチタラ ("gentle" becomes "gently")

The adverbs of affirmation are «エ», «ルウェ», «ルウェ ウン», «オプンキ», «ヤㇰウン», all of which mean "yes," and «オハイネ» which means "just so; so it is." The adverbs of negation are «セエンネ» and «ショモ», both of which mean "no; not."

Article

Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag <det> to denote determiner and <ind> to denote indefiniteness.

  • アイヌ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("a man")
  • チセイ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チセイ ("a house")
  • チコイキㇷ゚<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チコイキㇷ゚ ("an animal")

However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag <sg>) varying by context:

  • アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("one man")
  • シウェンテㇷ゚<n><sg> ↔ シネ シウェンテㇷ゚ ("one woman")

For the definite article (<def> the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:

  • クル<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ クル ("(the) person")
  • チェㇷ゚<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ チェㇷ゚ ("(the) fish")

Noun

Nouns (<n>) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case. Other words are combined with nouns to express this information:

  • アイヌ<n> ↔ アイヌ
  • アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌ ウタラ
  • アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ

Nouns are classified into three categories: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns. Common nouns are further divided into "conceptual" <conc> and "possessive" <pos> forms. The possessive forms have suffixes for possession, and prefixes "of the A (= transitive subject) series to cross-reference the possessor"(Bugaeva, 470). We will use the tags <cn>, <rn>, and <bn> to denote common, relational, and bound nouns, respectively.

  • シㇰ<n><cn><pos> ↔ クシㇰイヒ ("my eye")

Relational nouns take the place of adverbs and prepositions from European languages to express spatial/temporal relations. They have conceptual and possessive forms but relational nouns are marked for person/number of the possessor with object prefixes.

  • サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p1><sg> ↔ エンサㇺ ("near me")

However, there are no prefixes for 3rd person nouns, and possessive suffixes are only for 3rd person animate <aa> possessors:

  • サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p3><sg> ↔ メノコ サㇺア ("near the woman")

Bound nouns can't occur by themselves and must be modified with either a noun, determiner, or relative clause. There are only six of these: クㇽ ("person") ウタㇽ ("people") ウㇱケ/ウㇱケヘ ("(the) place/time (of)") ペ/ㇷ゚ ("thing/person") ヒケ ("the one/side") ヒ/イ ("place/time").

Comparison

Often in Ainu, degree of a intransitive verb (in what would be the adjective's role in a European language) is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the adverb «ナア» can be used before the intransitive verb <adj> in question to mark the comparative form <comp>, and «イヨッタ» can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form <sup>:

  • ピㇼカ<vblex><comp> ↔ ナア ピㇼカ
  • ピㇼカ<vblex><sup> ↔ イヨッタ ピㇼカ
  • ポン<vblex><comp> ↔ ナア ポン
  • ポン<vblex><sup> ↔ イヨッタ ポン

Verb Pluralization

Verbs <adj> may be pluralized <pl> with the suffix plural particle «パ»:

  • ピㇼカ<vblex><pl> ↔ ピㇼカパ
  • ウェン<vblex><pl> ↔ ウェンパ
  • ポン<vblex><pl> ↔ ポンパ
  • ハロコロ<vblex><pl> ↔ ハロコロパ

Passivization

The prefix «チ» attaches to transitive verbs <tv> to make them passive where they act as adjectives. I will use the tag <pasv1> to denote passivization.

  • アマ<vblex><tv><pasv1> ↔ チアマ
  • クパ<vblex><tv><pasv1> ↔ チクパ
  • ペレパ<vblex><tv><pasv1> ↔ チペレパ
  • テレケ<vblex><tv><pasv1> ↔ チテレケ
  • イェ<vblex><tv><pasv1> ↔ チイェ

Diminuitive

In Ainu, «ポ» marks the diminutive particle, denoted as <dim>. It can be attached to verbs or nouns.

  • イセ<vblex><dim> ↔ イセポ
  • ポンペ<n><dim> ↔ ポンペポ
  • チカㇷ゚<n><dim> ↔ チカㇷ゚ポ
  • オッカィ<n><dim> ↔ オッカィポ
  • チイカナィ<n><dim> ↔ チイカナィポ
  • チㇱナィ<n><dim> ↔ チㇱナィポ
  • ト゚カラ<n><dim> ↔ ト゚カラポ

Intensifier

Note: still searching for more examples, so this is not intended to be part of the grammar assignment. In Ainu, the morpheme «イ» can mark intensity (<int>)

  • セ<vblex><int> ↔ イセ


Nominalizing

In Ainu, adding the morpheme «イ» or «ヒ»to adjectives <adj> or verbs <vblex> can express abstract qualities <abs>:

  • ヌペキ<vblex><iv><nx><abs> ↔ ヌペキ イ ("bright" becomes "brightness"
  • ヌペキ<vblex><iv><nx><abs> ↔ ヌペキ ヒ
  • イタㇰ<vblex><nx><abs> ↔ イタㇰ イ ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
  • イタㇰ<vblex><nx><abs> ↔ イタㇰ ヒ

Adding the suffix «ペ» (realized as «ㇷ゚») to adjectives <adj> can nominalize them <n> to mean "an <adj> thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs <vblex><pasv2> to mean "thing that is <vblex><pasv2>":

  • パセ<vblex><iv><nx> ↔ パセ ㇷ゚ ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
  • ポロ<vblex><iv><nx> ↔ ポロ ㇷ゚ ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
  • エ<vblex><pasv1><nx> ↔ アエ ㇷ゚ ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
  • イェ<vblex><pasv1><nx> ↔ アイェ ㇷ゚ ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")

Noun Gender

Nouns are subject to no changes to indicate gender, number or case. Often Ainu has different words for differently gendered animate objects:

  • «アイヌ» "man", «マㇳアイヌ» "woman"
  • «シウㇰ» "a he bear", «クチャン» "a she bear"

When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «ピンネ "male" or «マㇳネ» "female" are placed before it:

  • チカㇷ゚<n><m> ↔ ピンネ チカㇷ゚ ("a cock")
  • チカㇷ゚<n><f> ↔ マㇳネ チカㇷ゚ ("a hen")
  • セタ<n><m> ↔ ピンネ セタ ("a dog")
  • セタ<n><f> ↔ マㇳネ セタ ("a bitch")

For human beings/gods, the word «オッカイ»/«オッカイヨ» "male" replaces «ピンネ»:

  • カムィ<n><mg> ↔ オッカイ カムィ

Noun number

Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix (or possibly separate word) «ウタラ», «ウタレ», or «ウタリ».

  • アイアイ<n><pl> ↔ アイアイ ウタラ
  • ウㇺマ<n><pl> ↔ ウㇺマ ウタラ
  • アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌ ウタラ

Additionally, the morpheme «ウ» is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality

  • アㇺ<n><pl> ↔ アム
  • アシキペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アシキペㇳト゚
  • アㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アト゚
  • チェㇷ゚<n><pl> ↔ チェㇷ゚ヌ
  • フラ<n><pl> ↔ フラヌ
  • イタㇰ<n><pl> ↔ イタク
  • クㇳ<n><pl> ↔ クット゚
  • ニシ<n><pl> ↔ ニシュ

However, sometimes the «ウ» morpheme is used as a prefix instead:

  • イクㇱペ<n><pl> ↔ ウクㇱペ
  • イリワㇰ<n><pl> ↔ ウイリワㇰ
  • ケマ<n><pl> ↔ ウケマ
  • ニマキ<n><pl> ↔ ウニマキ

Lastly, there appear to be other methods of pluralizing, including reduplication, and the use of the morpheme «cha»:

  • ペ<n><pl> ↔ ペペ
  • ペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ ペㇳチャ

Noun affinity

In Ainu, the suffixes «ポ» (<end2>, トノケ (<end1>) indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary or endearing way (thus the use of "end", short for endear), akin to "my dear", while «ニㇱパケ» can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way <hon>, akin to "my honored" in English:

  • アㇰ<n><end2> ↔ アㇰ ポ
  • ト゚レㇱ<n><end2> ↔ ト゚レㇱ ポ
  • アアㇰ<n><end1> ↔ アアㇰ トノケ
  • アポホ<n><end1> ↔ アポホ トノケ
  • アニㇱ<n><end1> ↔ アニㇱ トノケ
  • アユポ<n><end1> ↔ アユポ トノケ
  • アミチ<n><end1> ↔ アミチ トノケ
  • アユポ<n><hon> ↔ アユポ ニㇱパケ
  • アアㇰ<n><hon> ↔ アアㇰ ニㇱパケ
  • アトノ<n><hon> ↔ アトノ ニㇱパケ

Verbalization

Nouns <n> can sometimes become verbs (using the tag for verbalization, <vz> by taking «カラ» (to do) «コロ» (to possess) after them:

  • イキリ<n><vz> ↔ イキリカラ (from "a seam" to "to sew"}}
  • アット゚ㇱ<n><vz> ↔ アット゚ㇱカラ (from "cloth" to "to weave")
  • シセイ<n><vz> ↔ チセイカラ (from "a house" to "to build a house")
  • ハウ<n><vz> ↔ ハウコロ (from "the voice" to "to crow; to bark; to neigh")
  • ホニ<n><vz> ↔ ホニコロ (from "the stomach" to "to conceive")
  • カヤ<n><vz> ↔ カヤコロ (from "a sail" to "to sail"

Verb Passification

The particle «ア» in Ainu can sometimes signify the passive voice <pasv2> when placed before a verb <vblex>:

  • ヌ<vblex><pasv2> ↔ アヌ ("to hear" becomes "to be heard")
  • ヌイェ<vblex><pasv2> ↔ アヌイェ ("to write" becomes "to be written")
  • ライケ<vblex><pasv2> ↔ アライケ ("to kill" becomes "to be killed")

However, «ア» doesn't always signify this, and there are cases where it is used more like a post-position.

Verb Transitivity

The particle «エ» can make an intransitive verb <iv> into a transitive one (using the make-transitive tag <tvx> when used as a prefix:

  • キラ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エキラ ("to run away" becomes "to run away with")
  • ミㇰ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エミㇰ ("to bark" becomes "to bark at")
  • ミナ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エミナ ("to laugh" becomes "to laugh at")

Letter changes

To be completed and not considered for part of Ainu grammar assignment

  • No voiced stop may begin a sentence but sometimes voicing occurs: k->d, p->b, t->d

Chi is sometimes changed into t before utara, and u is dropped: 

 * Heikattara = heikachi + utara = "lads"
 * Matkattara = matkachi + utara = "girls"

He/hei becomes se/sei in some places: 

 * Hekachi -> sekachi ("a lad")

Ko becomes cho and vice versa: 

 * koropok -> choropok "underneath"

Pa becomes cha sometimes: 

 * upaskuma -> uchashkuma "preaching"

N becomes m before b or m: 

 * tan be -> tambe "this thing"
 * tan matkachi -> tammakatchi "this girl

Ra and ri become n before n and ra, and t before t: 

 * kara nangoro -> kan nangoro "will make"
 * oara raige -> oan-raige "to kill outright"
 * ara tuye -> oattuye "to cut through
 * ashiri no -> ashin-no "newly"

Ro becomes t before chi and t, and becomes n before n: 

 * ku goro chisei -> ku kot chisei "my house"
 * ku goro toi -> ku kottoi "my garden"
 * ku-goro-nishpa -> ku konnishpa "my master"

Ru becomes n before n: 

 * an guru ne -> an gun' ne "it is a person"

If word ending in vowel is followed by word starting with vowel, first vowel is sometimes dropped: 

 * moshiri ebitta -> moshir' ebitta "the whole world"
 *ota moshiri un guru -> oya moshir' un guru "a foreigner"
 * Utara, obitta -> utar' obitta "everybody"

Special emphasis can be given to a noun/adj ending with a vowel by reduplication of the previous syllable where the consonant is replaced with "h": 

 * nimaki -> nimakihi "a tooth"
 * to -> toho "a day" "a lake"
 * pirika -> pirikaha "good"
 * kunne -> kunnehe "black" "dark"

Often it is customary to reduplicate the final vowel: 

 * cha -> chaha "twigs"
 * hochi -> hochihi "a sum"
 * wenkuri -> wen-kurihi "a rain cloud"
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