Difference between revisions of "Khasi/Grammar"

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=== Gender and Number ===
 
=== Gender and Number ===
 
* Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
 
* Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
−
** {{morphTest|ka khun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}|'daughter'}}
+
** khun --> ka khun: daughter
−
** {{morphTest|u khun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}|'son'}}
+
** khun --> u khun: son
 +
** {{morphTest|ka{{tag|art}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}|ka}}
 +
** {{morphTest|u{{tag|art}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}|u}}
 
* The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
 
* The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
−
** {{morphTest|ki lang-kynthei{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|f}}|'she-goats', 'ewes'}}
+
** {{morphTest|lang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|f}}|lang-kynthei}}:'she-goats', 'ewes'
−
** {{morphTest|ki lang-shinrang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|'he-goats', 'rams'}}
+
** {{morphTest|lang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|lang-shinrang}}:'he-goats', 'rams'
 
* There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
 
* There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
−
** {{morphTest|ki massi-kyrtong{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|'bulls', 'male cows'}}
+
** massi-->massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
−
*** {{morphTest|massi{{tag|n}}|'cow'}}
+
*** massi: 'cow'
−
*** {{morphTest|kyrtong{{tag|adj}}{{tag|m}}|'fat', 'strong'}}
+
*** kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'
−
=== Case ===
+
 
 +
=== Cases and Associated Pronouns ===
 +
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
 +
*Nominative
 +
**The noun without any prepositions
 +
**{{morphTest|briw{{tag|n}}{{tag|nom}}|briw}}
 +
**Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
 +
*Accusative
 +
**Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
 +
**{{morphTest|briw{{tag|n}}{{tag|acc}}|ia briw}}
 +
**Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
 +
*Dative
 +
**Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
 +
**{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ha nga}}
 +
**Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
 +
*Instrumental
 +
**Takes 'da' (by, with)
 +
**{{morphTest|wait{{tag|n}}{{tag|ins}}|da wait}}
 +
**Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
 +
*Ablative
 +
**Takes 'na' (from, as)
 +
**{{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|na ing}}
 +
**Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
 +
*Genitive
 +
**Takes 'jong' (of)
 +
**{{morphTest|kymi{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kymi}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
 +
*Locative
 +
**Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
 +
**{{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ing}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
 +
*Vocative
 +
**Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
 +
** {{morphTest|Blei{{tag|n}}{{tag|voc}}|ah Blei}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God'
 +
 
 +
=== Diminutives ===
 +
* In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
 +
* To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
 +
 
 +
** maw --> i maw: 'A pebble'
 +
** {{morphTest|i{{tag|dim}}|i}}
 +
* In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
 +
** {{morphTest|maw{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dim}}|maw-ria}}: 'Pebbles'
 +
** {{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dim}}|ing-rit}}: 'Little houses'
 +
 
 
=== Morphology ===
 
=== Morphology ===
 
==== Abstract Nouns ====
 
==== Abstract Nouns ====
 
* Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
 
* Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
−
** {{morphTest|ka jingleh{{tag|n}}|'action'}}
+
** {{morphTest|leh{{tag|n}}|jingleh}}: 'action'
−
*** {{morphTest|leh{{tag|inf}}|'to do'}}
+
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|n}}|ka babha}}: 'the good'
−
** {{morphTest|ka babha{{tag|n}}|'the good'}}
+
* Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective: suk-->ka suk: 'happiness'
−
*** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|'good'}}
+
* Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns: khang-->ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'
−
* Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
+
 
−
** {{morphTest|ka suk{{tag|n}}|'happiness'}}
 
−
*** {{morphTest|suk{{tag|adj}}|'happy'}}
 
−
* Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
 
−
** {{morphTest|ka jing khang {{tag|n}}|'a door', lit 'a shutting'}}
 
 
==== Agentive Marker ====
 
==== Agentive Marker ====
 
* 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
 
* 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
−
**{{morphTest|nongtuh {{tag|n}}|'thief'}}
+
**{{morphTest|tuh{{tag|n}}|nongtuh}}: 'thief'
−
***{{morphTest|tuh {{tag|inf}}|'to steal'}}
+
**{{morphTest|behmrad{{tag|n}}|nongbehmrad}}: 'hunter'
 +
**{{morphTest|kha-ii{{tag|n}}|nongkha-ii}}: 'trader'
  
 
==== Other Prefixes ====
 
==== Other Prefixes ====
Line 35: Line 79:
  
 
== Verbs ==
 
== Verbs ==
−
* {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|actv}}|'roar'}}
+
* NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
−
* {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|actv}}|'eat'}}
+
* {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex}}|kyrhuh}}: roar
 +
* {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex}}|bam}}: eat
 +
Verbs have a particle 'la' which denotes past tense.
 +
* {{morphTest|la{{tag|past}}|la}}: past tense marker. It may be written as lah
 +
Verbs have a particle 'yn' which denotes future tense. It may be written as 'n
 +
* {{morphTest|yn{{tag|fut}}|yn}}: future tense marker
 +
Verbs have a particle 'ban' which marks the infinitive. It may be written as ba'n
 +
* {{morphTest|ban{{tag|inf}}|ban}}: infinitive tense marker
 +
 
 +
== Adverbs ==
 +
*NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
 +
 
 
== Adjectives ==
 
== Adjectives ==
−
* {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|'good'}}
+
* Adjectives agree with nouns.
−
* {{morphTest|barit{{tag|adj}}|'small'}}
+
* The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
 +
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|babha}}: good
 +
** {{morphTest|barit{{tag|adj}}|barit}}: small
 +
* It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
 +
**u briw-'''ba'''stad; 'a learned man'
 +
**u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
 +
**u soh-'''ba'''iong; 'a black fruit'
 +
**u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
 +
*As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.
 +
=== Comparatives and Superlatives ===
 +
==== Comparatives ====
 +
* 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
 +
**{{morphTest|baeh{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|ba kham eh}}: hard
 +
* Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
 +
** Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'
 +
==== Superlatives ====
 +
There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:
 +
* Adjective + 'tam'
 +
**{{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|babha tam}}: best
 +
* Comparative + 'tam'
 +
** {{morphTest|ba kham bha{{tag|sup}}|ba kham bha tam}}: best
 +
* Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
 +
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|sup}}|babha kham tam}}: best
 +
* Prep phrase
 +
** Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
 +
* Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
 +
** Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar{{tag|sup}}|ba runar eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar{{tag|sup}}|ba runar shikkadei eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
** Superlative + eh
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar tam{{tag|sup}}|ba runar tam eh}}: most cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar kham-tam{{tag|sup}}|ba runar kham-tam-eh}}: most cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar tam-shikkadei{{tag|sup}}|ba runar tam-shikkadei eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
 
 
== Prepositions ==
 
== Prepositions ==
−
* {{morphTest|jong{{tag|pr}}|'of'}}
+
* {{morphTest|jong{{tag|pr}}|jong}}: of
−
* {{morphTest|ha{{tag|pr}}|'in, to, at, on'}}
+
* {{morphTest|ha{{tag|pr}}|ha}}: in, to, at, on
 +
* {{morphTest|ia{{tag|pr}}|ia}}: to
 +
* {{morphTest|na{{tag|pr}}|na}}: from
 +
* {{morphTest|da{{tag|pr}}|da}}: by
 +
* Prepositions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
 +
** ha-->haei: where
 +
** ha-->hajan: near
 +
See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' ''A Khassi Reader'' for more prepositions.
 +
 
 
== Pronouns ==
 
== Pronouns ==
−
* {{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}|'I'}}
+
=== Personal Pronouns ===
−
* {{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}|'we'}}
+
* The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
 +
**nga, prn, p1, sg, nom: 'I'
 +
**ngi, prn, p1, pl, nom: 'we'
 +
**me, prn, p2, sg, m, nom: 'you'
 +
**pha, prn, p2, sg, f, nom: 'you'
 +
**phi, prn, p2, pl, nom: 'you (pl)'
 +
**u, prn, p3, sg, m, nom: 'he, it'
 +
**ka, prn, p3, sg, f, nom: 'she, it'
 +
**ki, prn, p3, pl, nom: 'they'
 +
==== Prepositional Marker Words ====
 +
*(Ø, pr, nom)
 +
*ia, pr, acc
 +
*da, pr, ins
 +
*ia ''or'' ha, pr, dat
 +
*na, pr, abl
 +
*jong, pr, gen
 +
*ha, pr, loc
 +
*ah, pr, voc
 +
 
 +
As an example of formation:
 +
*ia nga, acc, sg, p1:'me'
  
−
== Spellrelax ==
+
=== All Masculine/Ungendered Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above) ===
 +
* 1st Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}|nga}}: I
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}}|ia nga}}: me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|da nga}}: by me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ia nga}}: to me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ha nga}}: to me (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|na nga}}: from me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|jong nga}}: of me; my, mine
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|loc}}|ha nga}}: at, with, ''or'' in me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|loc}}|sha nga}}: at, with, ''or'' in me (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|voc}}|ah nga}}: Oh me!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ngi}}: we
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma ngi}}: we (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia ngi}}: us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da ngi}}: by us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia ngi}}: to us (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha ngi}}: to us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na ngi}}: from us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong ngi}}: of us; our, ours
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ngi}}: at, with, ''or'' in us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha ngi}}: at, with, ''or'' in us (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|voc}}|ah ngi}}: Oh we!
 +
*Second Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|me}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|ma me}}: you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia me}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da me}}: by you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ia me}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ha me}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|abl}}|na me}}: from you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong me}}: of you; your, yours
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|ha me}}: at, with, ''or'' in you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|sha me}}: at, with, ''or'' in you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|voc}}|ah me}}: Oh you!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|phi}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma phi}}: you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia phi}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da phi}}: by you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia phi}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha phi}}: to you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na phi}}: from you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong phi}}: of you; your, yours
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha phi}}: at, with, ''or'' in you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha phi}}: at, with, ''or'' in you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|voc}}|ah phi}}: Oh you!
 +
*Third Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|u}}: he, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia u}}: him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da u}}: by him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ia u}}: to him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ha u}}: to him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|abl}}|na u}}: from him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong u}}: of him, it; his, its
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|ha u}}: at, with, ''or'' in him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|sha u}}: at, with, ''or'' in him, it (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|voc}}|ah u}}: Oh him, Oh it!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ki}}: they
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma ki}}: they (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia ki}}: them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da ki}}: by them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia ki}}: to them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha ki}}: to them (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na ki}}: from them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong ki}}: of them, their, theirs
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ki}}: at, with, ''or'' in them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha ki}}: at, with, ''or'' in them (alternative)
 +
 
 +
=== Relative Pronouns ===
 +
* Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
**Masculine
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|uba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia uba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da uba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong uba}}: whose
 +
**Feminine
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|nom}}|kaba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|acc}}|ia kaba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|ins}}|da kaba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kaba}} whose
 +
**Diminutive
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}|iba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}}|ia iba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|da iba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|jong iba}} whose
 +
* Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|kiba}}: who
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia kiba}}: whom
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da kiba}}: by whom
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kiba}}: whose
 +
*Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba
 +
 
 +
=== Demonstrative Pronouns ===
 +
* Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
 +
* Formation: '''article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai}''' (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|une}}: this
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kane}}: this
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kine}}: this
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|uta}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kata}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kita}}: that
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|uto}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kato}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kito}}: that
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|utai}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|katai}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kitai}}: that
 +
 
 +
== Spellrelax (notes to self) ==
 
* With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
 
* With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
 +
* /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
 +
* /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
 +
* It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
 +
* Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.
 +
 +
= References =
 +
*Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
 +
*Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.
 +
[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
 +
[[Category:Khasi]]

Latest revision as of 17:16, 21 February 2017

Parts of speech

Nouns

Gender and Number

  • Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
    • khun --> ka khun: daughter
    • khun --> u khun: son
    • ka<art><sg><f> ↔ ka
    • u<art><sg><m> ↔ u
  • The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
    • lang<n><pl><f> ↔ lang-kynthei:'she-goats', 'ewes'
    • lang<n><pl><m> ↔ lang-shinrang:'he-goats', 'rams'
  • There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
    • massi-->massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
      • massi: 'cow'
      • kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'

Cases and Associated Pronouns

Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.

  • Nominative
    • The noun without any prepositions
    • briw<n><nom> ↔ briw
    • Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
  • Accusative
    • Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
    • briw<n><acc> ↔ ia briw
    • Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
  • Dative
    • Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
    • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga
    • Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
  • Instrumental
    • Takes 'da' (by, with)
    • wait<n><ins> ↔ da wait
    • Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
  • Ablative
    • Takes 'na' (from, as)
    • ing<n><abl> ↔ na ing
    • Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
  • Genitive
    • Takes 'jong' (of)
    • kymi<n><gen> ↔ jong kymi
    • Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
  • Locative
    • Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
    • ing<n><loc> ↔ ha ing
    • Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
  • Vocative
    • Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
    • Blei<n><voc> ↔ ah Blei
    • Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God'

Diminutives

  • In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
  • To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
    • maw --> i maw: 'A pebble'
    • i<dim> ↔ i
  • In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
    • maw<n><pl><dim> ↔ maw-ria: 'Pebbles'
    • ing<n><pl><dim> ↔ ing-rit: 'Little houses'

Morphology

Abstract Nouns

  • Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
    • leh<n> ↔ jingleh: 'action'
    • babha<n> ↔ ka babha: 'the good'
  • Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective: suk-->ka suk: 'happiness'
  • Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns: khang-->ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'

Agentive Marker

  • 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
    • tuh<n> ↔ nongtuh: 'thief'
    • behmrad<n> ↔ nongbehmrad: 'hunter'
    • kha-ii<n> ↔ nongkha-ii: 'trader'

Other Prefixes

  • According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"

Verbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
  • kyrhuh<vblex> ↔ kyrhuh: roar
  • bam<vblex> ↔ bam: eat

Verbs have a particle 'la' which denotes past tense.

  • la<past> ↔ la: past tense marker. It may be written as lah

Verbs have a particle 'yn' which denotes future tense. It may be written as 'n

  • yn<fut> ↔ yn: future tense marker

Verbs have a particle 'ban' which marks the infinitive. It may be written as ba'n

  • ban<inf> ↔ ban: infinitive tense marker

Adverbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.

Adjectives

  • Adjectives agree with nouns.
  • The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
    • babha<adj> ↔ babha: good
    • barit<adj> ↔ barit: small
  • It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
    • u briw-bastad; 'a learned man'
    • u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
    • u soh-baiong; 'a black fruit'
    • u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
  • As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives

  • 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
    • baeh<adj><comp> ↔ ba kham eh: hard
  • Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
    • Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'

Superlatives

There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:

  • Adjective + 'tam'
    • babha<adj><sup> ↔ babha tam: best
  • Comparative + 'tam'
    • ba kham bha<sup> ↔ ba kham bha tam: best
  • Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
    • babha<sup> ↔ babha kham tam: best
  • Prep phrase
    • Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
  • Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
    • Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
      • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar eh: most exceedingly cruel
      • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel
    • Superlative + eh
      • ba runar tam<sup> ↔ ba runar tam eh: most cruel
      • ba runar kham-tam<sup> ↔ ba runar kham-tam-eh: most cruel
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ ba runar tam-shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel

Prepositions

  • jong<pr> ↔ jong: of
  • ha<pr> ↔ ha: in, to, at, on
  • ia<pr> ↔ ia: to
  • na<pr> ↔ na: from
  • da<pr> ↔ da: by
  • Prepositions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
    • ha-->haei: where
    • ha-->hajan: near

See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

  • The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
    • nga, prn, p1, sg, nom: 'I'
    • ngi, prn, p1, pl, nom: 'we'
    • me, prn, p2, sg, m, nom: 'you'
    • pha, prn, p2, sg, f, nom: 'you'
    • phi, prn, p2, pl, nom: 'you (pl)'
    • u, prn, p3, sg, m, nom: 'he, it'
    • ka, prn, p3, sg, f, nom: 'she, it'
    • ki, prn, p3, pl, nom: 'they'

Prepositional Marker Words

  • (Ø, pr, nom)
  • ia, pr, acc
  • da, pr, ins
  • ia or ha, pr, dat
  • na, pr, abl
  • jong, pr, gen
  • ha, pr, loc
  • ah, pr, voc

As an example of formation:

  • ia nga, acc, sg, p1:'me'

All Masculine/Ungendered Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above)

  • 1st Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><nom> ↔ nga: I
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><acc> ↔ ia nga: me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><ins> ↔ da nga: by me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ia nga: to me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga: to me (alternative)
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><abl> ↔ na nga: from me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><gen> ↔ jong nga: of me; my, mine
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ ha nga: at, with, or in me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ sha nga: at, with, or in me (alternative)
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><voc> ↔ ah nga: Oh me!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ngi: we
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ma ngi: we (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><acc> ↔ ia ngi: us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><ins> ↔ da ngi: by us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ia ngi: to us (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ha ngi: to us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><abl> ↔ na ngi: from us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><gen> ↔ jong ngi: of us; our, ours
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ ha ngi: at, with, or in us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ sha ngi: at, with, or in us (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><voc> ↔ ah ngi: Oh we!
  • Second Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ me: you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ ma me: you (alternative)
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia me: you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><ins> ↔ da me: by you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia me: to you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha me: to you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><abl> ↔ na me: from you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong me: of you; your, yours
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha me: at, with, or in you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha me: at, with, or in you (alternative)
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah me: Oh you!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ phi: you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ ma phi: you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><acc> ↔ ia phi: you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><ins> ↔ da phi: by you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ia phi: to you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ha phi: to you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><abl> ↔ na phi: from you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><gen> ↔ jong phi: of you; your, yours
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ ha phi: at, with, or in you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ sha phi: at, with, or in you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><voc> ↔ ah phi: Oh you!
  • Third Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><nom> ↔ u: he, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia u: him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><ins> ↔ da u: by him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia u: to him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha u: to him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><abl> ↔ na u: from him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong u: of him, it; his, its
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha u: at, with, or in him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha u: at, with, or in him, it (alternative)
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah u: Oh him, Oh it!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ki: they
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ma ki: they (alternative)
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><acc> ↔ ia ki: them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><ins> ↔ da ki: by them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ia ki: to them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ha ki: to them (alternative)
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><abl> ↔ na ki: from them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><gen> ↔ jong ki: of them, their, theirs
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ ha ki: at, with, or in them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ sha ki: at, with, or in them (alternative)

Relative Pronouns

  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • Masculine
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><nom> ↔ uba: who
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia uba: whom
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><ins> ↔ da uba: by whom
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong uba: whose
    • Feminine
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><nom> ↔ kaba: who
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><acc> ↔ ia kaba: whom
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><ins> ↔ da kaba: by whom
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><gen> ↔ jong kaba whose
    • Diminutive
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><nom> ↔ iba: who
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><acc> ↔ ia iba: whom
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><ins> ↔ da iba: by whom
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><gen> ↔ jong iba whose
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><nom> ↔ kiba: who
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><acc> ↔ ia kiba: whom
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><ins> ↔ da kiba: by whom
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><gen> ↔ jong kiba: whose
  • Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba

Demonstrative Pronouns

  • Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
  • Formation: article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai} (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ une: this
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kane: this
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kine: this
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uta: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kata: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kita: that
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uto: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kato: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kito: that
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ utai: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ katai: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kitai: that

Spellrelax (notes to self)

  • With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
  • /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
  • /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
  • It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
  • Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.

References

  • Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
  • Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.
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