Difference between revisions of "Khasi/Grammar"

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=== Gender and Number ===
 
=== Gender and Number ===
 
* Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
 
* Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
−
** {{morphTest|ka khun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}|'daughter'}}
+
** khun --> ka khun: daughter
−
** {{morphTest|u khun{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}|'son'}}
+
** khun --> u khun: son
 +
** {{morphTest|ka{{tag|art}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}|ka}}
 +
** {{morphTest|u{{tag|art}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}|u}}
 
* The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
 
* The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
−
** {{morphTest|ki lang-kynthei{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|f}}|'she-goats', 'ewes'}}
+
** {{morphTest|lang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|f}}|lang-kynthei}}:'she-goats', 'ewes'
−
** {{morphTest|ki lang-shinrang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|'he-goats', 'rams'}}
+
** {{morphTest|lang{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|lang-shinrang}}:'he-goats', 'rams'
 
* There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
 
* There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
−
** {{morphTest|ki massi-kyrtong{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|m}}|'bulls', 'male cows'}}
+
** massi-->massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
−
*** {{morphTest|massi{{tag|n}}|'cow'}}
+
*** massi: 'cow'
−
*** {{morphTest|kyrtong{{tag|adj}}{{tag|m}}|'fat', 'strong'}}
+
*** kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'
 +
 
 
=== Cases and Associated Pronouns ===
 
=== Cases and Associated Pronouns ===
 
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
 
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
 
*Nominative
 
*Nominative
 
**The noun without any prepositions
 
**The noun without any prepositions
−
** {{morphTest|'''U briw''' u la wan{{tag|nom}}|'The '''man''' came'}}
+
**{{morphTest|briw{{tag|n}}{{tag|nom}}|briw}}
 +
**Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
 
*Accusative
 
*Accusative
 
**Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
 
**Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
−
** {{morphTest|U la shem '''ia u briw'''{{tag|acc}}|'He found '''the man''''}}
+
**{{morphTest|briw{{tag|n}}{{tag|acc}}|ia briw}}
 +
**Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
 
*Dative
 
*Dative
 
**Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
 
**Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
−
** {{morphTest|U la ai '''ha nga''' ia ka kitab{{tag|dat}}|'he gave '''me''' the book'}}
+
**{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ha nga}}
−
**‘He gave me a book’ would be ‘he gave to I a book’
+
**Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
 
*Instrumental
 
*Instrumental
 
**Takes 'da' (by, with)
 
**Takes 'da' (by, with)
−
** {{morphTest|U la phot ia la ka kti '''da ka wait'''{{tag|ins}}|'He cut his hand '''with an ax''''}}
+
**{{morphTest|wait{{tag|n}}{{tag|ins}}|da wait}}
 +
**Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
 
*Ablative
 
*Ablative
 
**Takes 'na' (from, as)
 
**Takes 'na' (from, as)
−
** {{morphTest|U Hom u la mih '''na''' la ing{{tag|ins}}|'Hom came '''out''' of his house'}}
+
**{{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|abl}}|na ing}}
 +
**Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
 
*Genitive
 
*Genitive
 
**Takes 'jong' (of)
 
**Takes 'jong' (of)
−
** {{morphTest|Ka ing '''jong ka kymi'''{{tag|gen}}|''''His mother's''' house'}}
+
**{{morphTest|kymi{{tag|n}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kymi}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
 
*Locative
 
*Locative
 
**Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
 
**Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
−
** {{morphTest|Ka kymi ka don '''ha ing'''{{tag|loc}}|'His mother is '''at home''''}}
+
**{{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ing}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
 
*Vocative
 
*Vocative
 
**Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)  
 
**Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)  
−
** {{morphTest|Ah Blei!, Ko Kyra {{tag|voc}}|'Oh God', 'My/our Father!'}}
+
** {{morphTest|Blei{{tag|n}}{{tag|voc}}|ah Blei}}
 +
**Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God'
 +
 
 +
=== Diminutives ===
 +
* In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
 +
* To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
 +
 
 +
** maw --> i maw: 'A pebble'
 +
** {{morphTest|i{{tag|dim}}|i}}
 +
* In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
 +
** {{morphTest|maw{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dim}}|maw-ria}}: 'Pebbles'
 +
** {{morphTest|ing{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dim}}|ing-rit}}: 'Little houses'
  
 
=== Morphology ===
 
=== Morphology ===
 
==== Abstract Nouns ====
 
==== Abstract Nouns ====
 
* Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
 
* Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
−
** {{morphTest|ka jingleh{{tag|n}}|'action'}}
+
** {{morphTest|leh{{tag|n}}|jingleh}}: 'action'
−
*** {{morphTest|leh{{tag|inf}}|'to do'}}
+
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|n}}|ka babha}}: 'the good'
−
** {{morphTest|ka babha{{tag|n}}|'the good'}}
+
* Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective: suk-->ka suk: 'happiness'
−
*** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|'good'}}
+
* Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns: khang-->ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'
−
* Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
+
 
−
** {{morphTest|ka suk{{tag|n}}|'happiness'}}
 
−
*** {{morphTest|suk{{tag|adj}}|'happy'}}
 
−
* Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
 
−
** {{morphTest|ka jing khang {{tag|n}}|'a door', lit 'a shutting'}}
 
 
==== Agentive Marker ====
 
==== Agentive Marker ====
 
* 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
 
* 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
−
**{{morphTest|nongtuh {{tag|n}}|'thief'}}
+
**{{morphTest|tuh{{tag|n}}|nongtuh}}: 'thief'
−
***{{morphTest|tuh {{tag|inf}}|'to steal'}}
+
**{{morphTest|behmrad{{tag|n}}|nongbehmrad}}: 'hunter'
 +
**{{morphTest|kha-ii{{tag|n}}|nongkha-ii}}: 'trader'
  
 
==== Other Prefixes ====
 
==== Other Prefixes ====
Line 62: Line 79:
  
 
== Verbs ==
 
== Verbs ==
−
* {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|actv}}|'roar'}}
+
* NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
−
* {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|actv}}|'eat'}}
+
* {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex}}|kyrhuh}}: roar
 +
* {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex}}|bam}}: eat
 +
Verbs have a particle 'la' which denotes past tense.
 +
* {{morphTest|la{{tag|past}}|la}}: past tense marker. It may be written as lah
 +
Verbs have a particle 'yn' which denotes future tense. It may be written as 'n
 +
* {{morphTest|yn{{tag|fut}}|yn}}: future tense marker
 +
Verbs have a particle 'ban' which marks the infinitive. It may be written as ba'n
 +
* {{morphTest|ban{{tag|inf}}|ban}}: infinitive tense marker
 +
 
 +
== Adverbs ==
 +
*NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
 +
 
 
== Adjectives ==
 
== Adjectives ==
−
* {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|'good'}}
+
* Adjectives agree with nouns.
−
* {{morphTest|barit{{tag|adj}}|'small'}}
+
* The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
 +
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}|babha}}: good
 +
** {{morphTest|barit{{tag|adj}}|barit}}: small
 +
* It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
 +
**u briw-'''ba'''stad; 'a learned man'
 +
**u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
 +
**u soh-'''ba'''iong; 'a black fruit'
 +
**u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
 +
*As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.
 +
=== Comparatives and Superlatives ===
 +
==== Comparatives ====
 +
* 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
 +
**{{morphTest|baeh{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|ba kham eh}}: hard
 +
* Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
 +
** Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'
 +
==== Superlatives ====
 +
There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:
 +
* Adjective + 'tam'
 +
**{{morphTest|babha{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|babha tam}}: best
 +
* Comparative + 'tam'
 +
** {{morphTest|ba kham bha{{tag|sup}}|ba kham bha tam}}: best
 +
* Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
 +
** {{morphTest|babha{{tag|sup}}|babha kham tam}}: best
 +
* Prep phrase
 +
** Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
 +
* Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
 +
** Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar{{tag|sup}}|ba runar eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar{{tag|sup}}|ba runar shikkadei eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
** Superlative + eh
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar tam{{tag|sup}}|ba runar tam eh}}: most cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar kham-tam{{tag|sup}}|ba runar kham-tam-eh}}: most cruel
 +
***{{morphTest|ba runar tam-shikkadei{{tag|sup}}|ba runar tam-shikkadei eh}}: most exceedingly cruel
 +
 
 
== Prepositions ==
 
== Prepositions ==
−
* {{morphTest|jong{{tag|pr}}|'of'}}
+
* {{morphTest|jong{{tag|pr}}|jong}}: of
−
* {{morphTest|ha{{tag|pr}}|'in, to, at, on'}}
+
* {{morphTest|ha{{tag|pr}}|ha}}: in, to, at, on
 +
* {{morphTest|ia{{tag|pr}}|ia}}: to
 +
* {{morphTest|na{{tag|pr}}|na}}: from
 +
* {{morphTest|da{{tag|pr}}|da}}: by
 +
* Prepositions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
 +
** ha-->haei: where
 +
** ha-->hajan: near
 +
See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' ''A Khassi Reader'' for more prepositions.
 +
 
 
== Pronouns ==
 
== Pronouns ==
−
* {{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}|'I'}}
+
=== Personal Pronouns ===
−
* {{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}|'we'}}
+
* The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
 +
**nga, prn, p1, sg, nom: 'I'
 +
**ngi, prn, p1, pl, nom: 'we'
 +
**me, prn, p2, sg, m, nom: 'you'
 +
**pha, prn, p2, sg, f, nom: 'you'
 +
**phi, prn, p2, pl, nom: 'you (pl)'
 +
**u, prn, p3, sg, m, nom: 'he, it'
 +
**ka, prn, p3, sg, f, nom: 'she, it'
 +
**ki, prn, p3, pl, nom: 'they'
 +
==== Prepositional Marker Words ====
 +
*(Ø, pr, nom)
 +
*ia, pr, acc
 +
*da, pr, ins
 +
*ia ''or'' ha, pr, dat
 +
*na, pr, abl
 +
*jong, pr, gen
 +
*ha, pr, loc
 +
*ah, pr, voc
 +
 
 +
As an example of formation:
 +
*ia nga, acc, sg, p1:'me'
 +
 
 +
=== All Masculine/Ungendered Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above) ===
 +
* 1st Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}|nga}}: I
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}}|ia nga}}: me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|da nga}}: by me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ia nga}}: to me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dat}}|ha nga}}: to me (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|abl}}|na nga}}: from me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|jong nga}}: of me; my, mine
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|loc}}|ha nga}}: at, with, ''or'' in me
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|loc}}|sha nga}}: at, with, ''or'' in me (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|nga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|voc}}|ah nga}}: Oh me!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ngi}}: we
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma ngi}}: we (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia ngi}}: us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da ngi}}: by us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia ngi}}: to us (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha ngi}}: to us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na ngi}}: from us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong ngi}}: of us; our, ours
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ngi}}: at, with, ''or'' in us
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha ngi}}: at, with, ''or'' in us (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ngi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|voc}}|ah ngi}}: Oh we!
 +
*Second Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|me}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|ma me}}: you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia me}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da me}}: by you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ia me}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ha me}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|abl}}|na me}}: from you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong me}}: of you; your, yours
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|ha me}}: at, with, ''or'' in you
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|sha me}}: at, with, ''or'' in you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|voc}}|ah me}}: Oh you!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|phi}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma phi}}: you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia phi}}: you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da phi}}: by you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia phi}}: to you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha phi}}: to you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na phi}}: from you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong phi}}: of you; your, yours
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha phi}}: at, with, ''or'' in you
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha phi}}: at, with, ''or'' in you (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|voc}}|ah phi}}: Oh you!
 +
*Third Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|u}}: he, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia u}}: him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da u}}: by him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ia u}}: to him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dat}}|ha u}}: to him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|abl}}|na u}}: from him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong u}}: of him, it; his, its
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|ha u}}: at, with, ''or'' in him, it
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|loc}}|sha u}}: at, with, ''or'' in him, it (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|voc}}|ah u}}: Oh him, Oh it!
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ki}}: they
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|ma ki}}: they (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia ki}}: them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da ki}}: by them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ia ki}}: to them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dat}}|ha ki}}: to them (alternative)
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|abl}}|na ki}}: from them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong ki}}: of them, their, theirs
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|ha ki}}: at, with, ''or'' in them
 +
***{{morphTest|ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|loc}}|sha ki}}: at, with, ''or'' in them (alternative)
 +
 
 +
=== Relative Pronouns ===
 +
* Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
**Masculine
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|nom}}|uba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|acc}}|ia uba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|ins}}|da uba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|uba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|gen}}|jong uba}}: whose
 +
**Feminine
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|nom}}|kaba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|acc}}|ia kaba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|ins}}|da kaba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|kaba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kaba}} whose
 +
**Diminutive
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nom}}|iba}}: who
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|acc}}|ia iba}}: whom
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ins}}|da iba}}: by whom
 +
***{{morphTest|iba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}|jong iba}} whose
 +
* Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|nom}}|kiba}}: who
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}|ia kiba}}: whom
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ins}}|da kiba}}: by whom
 +
**{{morphTest|kiba{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}|jong kiba}}: whose
 +
*Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba
  
−
== Spellrelax ==
+
=== Demonstrative Pronouns ===
 +
* Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
 +
* Formation: '''article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai}''' (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|une}}: this
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kane}}: this
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kine}}: this
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|uta}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kata}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kita}}: that
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|uto}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|kato}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kito}}: that
 +
----
 +
**{{morphTest|u{{tag|sg}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dem}}|utai}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ka{{tag|sg}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|dem}}|katai}}: that
 +
**{{morphTest|ki{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dem}}|kitai}}: that
 +
 
 +
== Spellrelax (notes to self) ==
 
* With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
 
* With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
 +
* /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
 +
* /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
 +
* It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
 +
* Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.
 +
 +
= References =
 +
*Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
 +
*Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.
 +
[[Category:Grammar documentation]]
 +
[[Category:Khasi]]

Latest revision as of 17:16, 21 February 2017

Parts of speech

Nouns

Gender and Number

  • Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
    • khun --> ka khun: daughter
    • khun --> u khun: son
    • ka<art><sg><f> ↔ ka
    • u<art><sg><m> ↔ u
  • The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
    • lang<n><pl><f> ↔ lang-kynthei:'she-goats', 'ewes'
    • lang<n><pl><m> ↔ lang-shinrang:'he-goats', 'rams'
  • There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
    • massi-->massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
      • massi: 'cow'
      • kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'

Cases and Associated Pronouns

Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.

  • Nominative
    • The noun without any prepositions
    • briw<n><nom> ↔ briw
    • Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
  • Accusative
    • Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
    • briw<n><acc> ↔ ia briw
    • Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
  • Dative
    • Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
    • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga
    • Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
  • Instrumental
    • Takes 'da' (by, with)
    • wait<n><ins> ↔ da wait
    • Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
  • Ablative
    • Takes 'na' (from, as)
    • ing<n><abl> ↔ na ing
    • Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
  • Genitive
    • Takes 'jong' (of)
    • kymi<n><gen> ↔ jong kymi
    • Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
  • Locative
    • Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
    • ing<n><loc> ↔ ha ing
    • Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
  • Vocative
    • Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
    • Blei<n><voc> ↔ ah Blei
    • Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God'

Diminutives

  • In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
  • To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
    • maw --> i maw: 'A pebble'
    • i<dim> ↔ i
  • In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
    • maw<n><pl><dim> ↔ maw-ria: 'Pebbles'
    • ing<n><pl><dim> ↔ ing-rit: 'Little houses'

Morphology

Abstract Nouns

  • Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
    • leh<n> ↔ jingleh: 'action'
    • babha<n> ↔ ka babha: 'the good'
  • Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective: suk-->ka suk: 'happiness'
  • Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns: khang-->ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'

Agentive Marker

  • 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
    • tuh<n> ↔ nongtuh: 'thief'
    • behmrad<n> ↔ nongbehmrad: 'hunter'
    • kha-ii<n> ↔ nongkha-ii: 'trader'

Other Prefixes

  • According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"

Verbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
  • kyrhuh<vblex> ↔ kyrhuh: roar
  • bam<vblex> ↔ bam: eat

Verbs have a particle 'la' which denotes past tense.

  • la<past> ↔ la: past tense marker. It may be written as lah

Verbs have a particle 'yn' which denotes future tense. It may be written as 'n

  • yn<fut> ↔ yn: future tense marker

Verbs have a particle 'ban' which marks the infinitive. It may be written as ba'n

  • ban<inf> ↔ ban: infinitive tense marker

Adverbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.

Adjectives

  • Adjectives agree with nouns.
  • The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
    • babha<adj> ↔ babha: good
    • barit<adj> ↔ barit: small
  • It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
    • u briw-bastad; 'a learned man'
    • u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
    • u soh-baiong; 'a black fruit'
    • u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
  • As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives

  • 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
    • baeh<adj><comp> ↔ ba kham eh: hard
  • Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
    • Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'

Superlatives

There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:

  • Adjective + 'tam'
    • babha<adj><sup> ↔ babha tam: best
  • Comparative + 'tam'
    • ba kham bha<sup> ↔ ba kham bha tam: best
  • Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
    • babha<sup> ↔ babha kham tam: best
  • Prep phrase
    • Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
  • Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
    • Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
      • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar eh: most exceedingly cruel
      • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel
    • Superlative + eh
      • ba runar tam<sup> ↔ ba runar tam eh: most cruel
      • ba runar kham-tam<sup> ↔ ba runar kham-tam-eh: most cruel
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ ba runar tam-shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel

Prepositions

  • jong<pr> ↔ jong: of
  • ha<pr> ↔ ha: in, to, at, on
  • ia<pr> ↔ ia: to
  • na<pr> ↔ na: from
  • da<pr> ↔ da: by
  • Prepositions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
    • ha-->haei: where
    • ha-->hajan: near

See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

  • The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
    • nga, prn, p1, sg, nom: 'I'
    • ngi, prn, p1, pl, nom: 'we'
    • me, prn, p2, sg, m, nom: 'you'
    • pha, prn, p2, sg, f, nom: 'you'
    • phi, prn, p2, pl, nom: 'you (pl)'
    • u, prn, p3, sg, m, nom: 'he, it'
    • ka, prn, p3, sg, f, nom: 'she, it'
    • ki, prn, p3, pl, nom: 'they'

Prepositional Marker Words

  • (Ø, pr, nom)
  • ia, pr, acc
  • da, pr, ins
  • ia or ha, pr, dat
  • na, pr, abl
  • jong, pr, gen
  • ha, pr, loc
  • ah, pr, voc

As an example of formation:

  • ia nga, acc, sg, p1:'me'

All Masculine/Ungendered Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above)

  • 1st Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><nom> ↔ nga: I
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><acc> ↔ ia nga: me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><ins> ↔ da nga: by me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ia nga: to me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga: to me (alternative)
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><abl> ↔ na nga: from me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><gen> ↔ jong nga: of me; my, mine
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ ha nga: at, with, or in me
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ sha nga: at, with, or in me (alternative)
      • nga<prn><p1><sg><voc> ↔ ah nga: Oh me!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ngi: we
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ma ngi: we (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><acc> ↔ ia ngi: us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><ins> ↔ da ngi: by us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ia ngi: to us (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ha ngi: to us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><abl> ↔ na ngi: from us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><gen> ↔ jong ngi: of us; our, ours
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ ha ngi: at, with, or in us
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ sha ngi: at, with, or in us (alternative)
      • ngi<prn><p1><pl><voc> ↔ ah ngi: Oh we!
  • Second Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ me: you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ ma me: you (alternative)
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia me: you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><ins> ↔ da me: by you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia me: to you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha me: to you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><abl> ↔ na me: from you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong me: of you; your, yours
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha me: at, with, or in you
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha me: at, with, or in you (alternative)
      • me<prn><p2><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah me: Oh you!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ phi: you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ ma phi: you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><acc> ↔ ia phi: you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><ins> ↔ da phi: by you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ia phi: to you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ha phi: to you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><abl> ↔ na phi: from you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><gen> ↔ jong phi: of you; your, yours
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ ha phi: at, with, or in you
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ sha phi: at, with, or in you (alternative)
      • phi<prn><p2><pl><voc> ↔ ah phi: Oh you!
  • Third Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><nom> ↔ u: he, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia u: him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><ins> ↔ da u: by him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia u: to him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha u: to him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><abl> ↔ na u: from him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong u: of him, it; his, its
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha u: at, with, or in him, it
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha u: at, with, or in him, it (alternative)
      • u<prn><p3><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah u: Oh him, Oh it!
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ki: they
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ma ki: they (alternative)
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><acc> ↔ ia ki: them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><ins> ↔ da ki: by them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ia ki: to them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ha ki: to them (alternative)
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><abl> ↔ na ki: from them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><gen> ↔ jong ki: of them, their, theirs
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ ha ki: at, with, or in them
      • ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ sha ki: at, with, or in them (alternative)

Relative Pronouns

  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • Masculine
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><nom> ↔ uba: who
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia uba: whom
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><ins> ↔ da uba: by whom
      • uba<prn><rel><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong uba: whose
    • Feminine
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><nom> ↔ kaba: who
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><acc> ↔ ia kaba: whom
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><ins> ↔ da kaba: by whom
      • kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><gen> ↔ jong kaba whose
    • Diminutive
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><nom> ↔ iba: who
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><acc> ↔ ia iba: whom
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><ins> ↔ da iba: by whom
      • iba<prn><rel><sg><gen> ↔ jong iba whose
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><nom> ↔ kiba: who
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><acc> ↔ ia kiba: whom
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><ins> ↔ da kiba: by whom
    • kiba<prn><rel><pl><gen> ↔ jong kiba: whose
  • Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba

Demonstrative Pronouns

  • Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
  • Formation: article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai} (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ une: this
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kane: this
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kine: this
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uta: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kata: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kita: that
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uto: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kato: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kito: that
    • u<sg><m><dem> ↔ utai: that
    • ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ katai: that
    • ki<pl><dem> ↔ kitai: that

Spellrelax (notes to self)

  • With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
  • /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
  • /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
  • It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
  • Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.

References

  • Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
  • Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.
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