Revision as of 04:03, 11 February 2017

Parts of speech

Nouns

Gender and Number

• Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
  • khun<n><sg><f> ↔ ka khun: 'daughter'
  • khun<n><sg><m> ↔ u khun: 'son'
• The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
  • lang<n><pl><f> ↔ ki lang-kynthei:'she-goats', 'ewes'
  • lang<n><pl><m> ↔ ki lang-shinrang:'he-goats', 'rams'
• There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
  • massi<n><pl><m> ↔ ki massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
    • massi: 'cow'
    • kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'

Cases and Associated Pronouns

Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.

• Nominative
  • The noun without any prepositions
  • u briw <n><nom> ↔ u briw
  • Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
• Accusative
  • Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
  • u briw<n><acc> ↔ ia u briw
  • Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
• Dative
  • Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
  • nga<n><dat> ↔ ha nga
  • Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
• Instrumental
  • Takes 'da' (by, with)
  • ka wait<n><ins> ↔ da ka wait
  • Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
• Ablative
  • Takes 'na' (from, as)
  • la ing<n><abl> ↔ na la ing
  • Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
• Genitive
  • Takes 'jong' (of)
  • ka kymi<n><gen> ↔ jong ka kymi
  • Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
• Locative
  • Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
  • ing<n><loc> ↔ ha ing
  • Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
• Vocative
  • Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
  • Blei <voc> ↔ Ah Blei!
  • Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God!'

Diminutives

• In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
• To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
  • briw <n><sg> ↔ i briw: 'A dwarf'
  • maw <n><sg> ↔ i maw: 'A pebble'
  • ing <n><sg> ↔ i ing: 'A little house'
• In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
  • briw <n><pl> ↔ ki 'riw-raid: 'A dwarf'
  • maw <n><pl> ↔ ki maw-ria: 'Pebbles'
  • ing <n><pl> ↔ ki ing-rit: 'Little houses'

Morphology

Abstract Nouns

• Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
  • leh<n> ↔ ka jingleh: 'action'
  • babha<n> ↔ ka babha: 'the good'
• Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
  • suk<n> ↔ ka suk: 'happiness'
• Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
  • khang <n> ↔ ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'

Agentive Marker

• 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
  • tuh<n> ↔ nongtuh: 'thief'
  • behmrad<n> ↔ nongbehmrad: 'hunter'
  • kha-ii<n> ↔ nongkha-ii: 'trader'

Other Prefixes

• According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"

Verbs

• NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
• kyrhuh<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ kyrhuh: roar
• bam<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ bam: eat

Adverbs

• NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.

Adjectives

• Adjectives agree with nouns.
• The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
  • babha<adj> ↔ babha: good
  • barit<adj> ↔ barit: small
• It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
  • u briw-bastad; 'a learned man'
  • u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
  • u soh-baiong; 'a black fruit'
  • u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
• As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives

• 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
  • baeh<adj><comp> ↔ ba kham eh: hard
• Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
  • Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'

Superlatives

There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:

• Adjective + 'tam'
  • babha tam<adj><sup> ↔ babha tam: best
• Comparative + 'tam'
  • ba kham bha<sup> ↔ ba kham bha tam: best
• Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
  • babha<sup> ↔ babha kham tam: best
• Prep phrase
  • Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
• Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
  • Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
    • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar eh: most exceedingly cruel
    • ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel
  • Superlative + eh
    • ba runar tam<sup> ↔ ba runar tam eh: most cruel
    • ba runar kham-tam<sup> ↔ ba runar kham-tam-eh: most cruel
    • ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ ba runar tam-shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel

Prepositions

• jong<pr> ↔ jong: of
• ha<pr> ↔ ha: in, to, at, on
• ïa<pr> ↔ ïa: to
• na<pr> ↔ na: from
• Preporitions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
  • haei<adv> ↔ haei: where
  • hajan<adv> ↔ hajan: near

See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

• The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
  • nga<prn><per><p1><sg><nom>: 'I'
  • ngi<prn><per><p1><pl><nom>: 'we'
  • me<prn><per><p2><sg><nom>: 'you'
  • phi<prn><per><p2><pl><nom>: 'you (pl)'
  • u<prn><per><p3><sg><nom>: 'he, she, it'
  • ki<prn><per><p3><pl><nom>: 'they'

Prepositional Marker Words

• (Ø<pr><nom>)
• ia<pr><acc>
• da<pr><ins>
• ia or ha<pr><dat>
• na<pr><abl>
• jong<pr><gen>
• ha<pr><loc>
• ah<pr><voc>

As an example of formation:

• ia nga<acc><sg><p1> 'me'

All Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above)

• 1st Person Pronouns
  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • nga<prn><nom><sg><p1> ↔ nga: I
    • nga<prn><acc><sg><p1> ↔ ia nga: me
    • nga<prn><ins><sg><p1> ↔ da nga: by me
    • nga<prn><dat><p1><sg> ↔ ia or ha nga: to me
    • nga<prn><abl><sg><p1> ↔ na nga: from me
    • nga<prn><gen><sg><p1> ↔ jong nga: of me; my, mine
    • nga<prn><loc><sg><p1> ↔ ha or sha nga: at, with, or in me
    • nga<prn><voc><sg><p1> ↔ Ah ma-nga!: Oh me!
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • ngi<prn><nom><pl><p1> ↔ ngi or ma ngi: we
    • ngi<prn><acc><pl><p1> ↔ ia ngi: us
    • ngi<prn><ins><pl><p1> ↔ da ngi: by us
    • ngi<prn><dat><pl><p1> ↔ ia or ha ngi: to us
    • ngi<prn><abl><pl><p1> ↔ na ngi: from us
    • ngi<prn><gen><pl><p1> ↔ jong ngi: of us; our, ours
    • ngi<prn><loc><pl><p1> ↔ ha or sha ngi: at, with, or in us
    • ngi<prn><voc><pl><p1> ↔ Ah ngi: Oh we!
• Second Person Pronouns
  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • me<prn><nom><sg><p2><m> ↔ me or ma-me: you; pha<prn><nom><sg><p2><f> ↔ pha or ma-pha: you
    • me<prn><acc><sg><p2><m> ↔ ia me: you; pha<prn><acc><sg><p2><f> ↔ ia pha: you
    • me<prn><ins><sg><p2><m> ↔ da me: by you; pha<prn><ins><sg><p2><f> ↔ da pha: by you
    • me<prn><dat><sg><p2><m> ↔ ia or ha me: to you; pha<prn><dat><sg><p2><f> ↔ ia or ha pha: to you
    • me<prn><abl><sg><p2><m> ↔ na me: from you; pha<prn><abl><sg><p2><f> ↔ na pha: from you
    • me<prn><gen><sg><p2><m> ↔ jong me: of you; your, yours; pha<prn><gen><sg><p2><f> ↔ jong pha: of you; your, yours
    • me<prn><loc><sg><p2><m> ↔ ha or sha me: at, with, or in you; pha<prn><loc><sg><p2><f> ↔ ha or sha pha: at, with, or in you
    • me<prn><voc><sg><p2><m> ↔ Ah me: Oh you!; pha<prn><voc><sg><p2><f> ↔ Ah pha: Oh you!
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • phior ma phi<prn><nom><pl><p2> ↔ phior ma phi: you
    • phi<prn><acc><pl><p2> ↔ ia phi: you
    • phi<prn><ins><pl><p2> ↔ da phi: by you
    • phi<prn><dat><pl><p2> ↔ ia or ha phi: to you
    • phi<prn><abl><pl><p2> ↔ na phi: from you
    • phi<prn><gen><pl><p2> ↔ jong phi: of you; your, yours
    • phi<prn><loc><pl><p2> ↔ ha or sha phi: at, with, or in you
    • phi<prn><voc><pl><p2> ↔ Ah phi: Oh you!
• Third Person Pronouns
  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • u<prn><nom><sg><p3><m> ↔ u: he, it; ka<prn><nom><sg><p3><f> ↔ ka: she, it
    • u<prn><acc><sg><p3><m> ↔ ia u: him, it; ka<prn><acc><sg><p3><f> ↔ ia ka: her, it
    • u<prn><ins><sg><p3><m> ↔ da u: by him, it; ka<prn><ins><sg><p3><f> ↔ da ka: by her, it
    • u<prn><dat><sg><p3><m> ↔ ia or ha u: to him, it; ka<prn><dat><sg><p3><f> ↔ ia or ha ka: to her, it
    • u<prn><abl><sg><p3><m> ↔ na u: from him, it; ka<prn><abl><sg><p3><f> ↔ na ka: from her, it
    • u<prn><gen><sg><p3><m> ↔ jong u: of him, it; his, its; ka<prn><gen><sg><p3><f> ↔ jong ka: of her, it; her, its, hers
    • u<prn><loc><sg><p3><m> ↔ ha or sha u: at, with, or in him, it; ka<prn><loc><sg><p3><f> ↔ ha or sha ka: at, with, or in her, it
    • u<prn><voc><sg><p3><m> ↔ Ah u: Oh him, Oh it!; ka<prn><voc><sg><p3><f> ↔ Ah ka: Oh her, Oh it!
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • ki<prn><nom><pl><p3> ↔ kior ma ki: they
    • ki<prn><acc><pl><p3> ↔ ia ki: them
    • ki<prn><ins><pl><p3> ↔ da ki: by them
    • ki<prn><dat><pl><p3> ↔ ia or ha ki: to them
    • ki<prn><abl><pl><p3> ↔ na ki: from them
    • ki<prn><gen><pl><p3> ↔ jong ki: of them, their, theirs
    • ki<prn><loc><pl><p3> ↔ ha or sha ki: at, with, or in them

Relative Pronouns

• Singular Pronouns Declined
  • (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><nom><sg> ↔ (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba: who
  • (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><acc><sg> ↔ (masc) ia uba; (fem) ia kaba; (dim) ia iba: whom
  • (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><ins><sg> ↔ (masc) da uba; (fem) da kaba; (dim) da iba: by whom
  • (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><gen><sg> ↔ jong uba; (fem) jong kaba; (dim) jong iba: whose
• Plural Pronouns Declined
  • kiba<prn><nom><pl> ↔ kiba: who
  • kiba<prn><acc><pl> ↔ ia kiba: whom
  • kiba<prn><ins><pl> ↔ da kiba: by whom
  • kiba<prn><gen><pl> ↔ jong kiba: whose
• Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
• Formation: article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai} (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
  • u<prn><m><dem> ↔ une: this
  • ka<prn><f><dem> ↔ kane: this
  • i<prn><dem> ↔ ine: this (diminutive)

Spellrelax (notes to self)

• With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
• /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
• /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
• It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
• Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.

References

• Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
• Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.