Difference between revisions of "Ainu/Grammar"

Revision as of 23:41, 26 February 2017

Parts of Speech

Determiner

There are three determiner classes in Ainu: numeral determiners (<ndet>), nominal demonstratives (<ndom>), and anaphoric demonstratives (<adom>). It is typologically interesting that in Ainu, all determiners must be prenominal and cannot be an NP by themselves.

• チセ<n><ndom> ↔ タン チセ ("this house")
• チセ<n><ndet> ↔ ト゚ チセ ("this house")
• ト゚ㇷ゚<bn><ndet> ↔ ト゚ㇷ゚ ("two things")

Verb

Because Verbs in Ainu <vblex> have only the indicative mood <pri>, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense <pres> continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs <vaux> «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.

• クキㇰ<vblex><vaux><pres> ↔ クキㇰシリネ ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")

Verbs are split into four classes based on valency: zero-argument verbs (<av>), intransitive verbs (<iv>), transitive verbs (<tv>), and the copula (<cop>). While other languages have a separate class for adjectives, Ainu expresses adjectival content through intransitive verbs.

Zero-argument verbs are meteorological predicates, most of which contain the subject シㇼ ("appearance/land"):

• シㇼピㇼカ<vblex><av> ↔ シㇼピㇼカ ("it is good weather")

Intransitive verbs take S series verbal affixes, transitive verbs take A and O series affixes, and the copula ネ takes A series markers but not O series.

• ネ<vblex><cop> ↔ ネ ("be/become")

Pronoun

Adverb

Adverbs in Ainu <adv> seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:

• アシリ<adv> ↔ アシンノ ("new" becomes "newly")
• ソン<adv> ↔ ソンノ ("true" becomes "truly")
• モイレ<adv> ↔ モイレタラ ("slow" becomes "slowly")
• ラチ<adv> ↔ ラチタラ ("gentle" becomes "gently")

The adverbs of affirmation are «エ», «ルウェ», «ルウェ ウン», «オプンキ», «ヤㇰウン», all of which mean "yes," and «オハイネ» which means "just so; so it is." The adverbs of negation are «セエンネ» and «ショモ», both of which mean "no; not."

Article

Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag <det> to denote determiner and <ind> to denote indefiniteness.

• アイヌ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("a man")
• チセイ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チセイ ("a house")
• チコイキㇷ゚<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チコイキㇷ゚ ("an animal")

However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag <sg>) varying by context:

• アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("one man")
• シウェンテㇷ゚<n><sg> ↔ シネ シウェンテㇷ゚ ("one woman")

For the definite article (<def> the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:

• クル<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ クル ("(the) person")
• チェㇷ゚<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ チェㇷ゚ ("(the) fish")

Noun

Nouns (<n>) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case. Other words are combined with nouns to express this information:

• アイヌ<n> ↔ アイヌ
• アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌ ウタラ
• アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ

Nouns are classified into three categories: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns. Common nouns are further divided into "conceptual" <conc> and "possessive" <pos> forms. The possessive forms have suffixes for possession, and prefixes "of the A (= transitive subject) series to cross-reference the possessor"(Bugaeva, 470). We will use the tags <cn>, <rn>, and <bn> to denote common, relational, and bound nouns, respectively.

• シㇰ<n><cn><pos> ↔ クシㇰイヒ ("my eye")

Relational nouns take the place of adverbs and prepositions from European languages to express spatial/temporal relations. They have conceptual and possessive forms but relational nouns are marked for person/number of the possessor with object prefixes.

• サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p1><sg> ↔ エンサㇺ ("near me")

However, there are no prefixes for 3rd person nouns, and possessive suffixes are only for 3rd person animate <aa> possessors:

• サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p3><sg> ↔ メノコ サㇺア ("near the woman")

Bound nouns can't occur by themselves and must be modified with either a noun, determiner, or relative clause. There are only six of these: クㇽ ("person") ウタㇽ ("people") ウㇱケ/ウㇱケヘ ("(the) place/time (of)") ペ/ㇷ゚ ("thing/person") ヒケ ("the one/side") ヒ/イ ("place/time").

Comparison

Often in Ainu, degree of a intransitive verb (in what would be the adjective's role in a European language) is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the adverb «ナア» can be used before the intransitive verb <adj> in question to mark the comparative form <comp>, and «イヨッタ» can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form <sup>:

• ピㇼカ<vblex><comp> ↔ ナア ピㇼカ
• ピㇼカ<vblex><sup> ↔ イヨッタ ピㇼカ
• ポン<vblex><comp> ↔ ナア ポン
• ポン<vblex><sup> ↔ イヨッタ ポン

Verb Pluralization

Verbs <adj> may be pluralized <pl> with the suffix plural particle «パ»:

• ピㇼカ<vblex><pl> ↔ ピㇼカパ
• ウェン<vblex><pl> ↔ ウェンパ
• ポン<vblex><pl> ↔ ポンパ
• ハロコロ<vblex><pl> ↔ ハロコロパ

Passivization

The prefix «チ» attaches to transitive verbs <tv> to make them passive where they act as adjectives. I will use the tag <pasv> to denote passivization.

• アマ<vblex><tv><pasv> ↔ チアマ
• クパ<vblex><tv><pasv> ↔ チクパ
• ペレパ<vblex><tv><pasv> ↔ チペレパ
• テレケ<vblex><tv><pasv> ↔ チテレケ
• イェ<vblex><tv><pasv> ↔ チイェ

Diminuitive

In Ainu, «ポ» marks the diminutive particle, denoted as <dim>. It can be attached to verbs or nouns.

• イセ<vblex><dim> ↔ イセポ
• ポンペ<n><dim> ↔ ポンペポ
• チカㇷ゚<n><dim> ↔ チカㇷ゚ポ
• オッカィ<n><dim> ↔ オッカィポ
• チイカナィ<n><dim> ↔ チイカナィポ
• チㇱナィ<n><dim> ↔ チㇱナィポ
• ト゚カラ<n><dim> ↔ ト゚カラポ

Intensifier

Note: still searching for more examples, so this is not intended to be part of the grammar assignment. In Ainu, the morpheme «イ» can mark intensity (<int>)

• セ<vblex><int> ↔ イセ

Nominalizing

In Ainu, adding the morpheme «イ» or «ヒ»to adjectives <adj> or verbs <vblex> can express abstract qualities <abs>:

• ヌペキ<vblex><iv><nx><abs> ↔ ヌペキ イ ("bright" becomes "brightness"
• ヌペキ<vblex><iv><nx><abs> ↔ ヌペキ ヒ
• イタㇰ<vblex><nx><abs> ↔ イタㇰ イ ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
• イタㇰ<vblex><nx><abs> ↔ イタㇰ ヒ

Adding the suffix «ペ» (realized as «ㇷ゚») to adjectives <adj> can nominalize them <n> to mean "an <adj> thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs <vblex><pass> to mean "thing that is <vblex><pass>":

• パセ<vblex><iv><nx> ↔ パセ ㇷ゚ ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
• ポロ<vblex><iv><nx> ↔ ポロ ㇷ゚ ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
• エ<vblex><pasv><nx> ↔ アエ ㇷ゚ ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
• イェ<vblex><pasv><nx> ↔ アイェ ㇷ゚ ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")

Noun Gender

Nouns are subject to no changes to indicate gender, number or case. Often Ainu has different words for differently gendered animate objects:

• «アイヌ» "man", «マㇳアイヌ» "woman"
• «シウㇰ» "a he bear", «クチャン» "a she bear"

When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «ピンネ "male" or «マㇳネ» "female" are placed before it:

• チカㇷ゚<n><m> ↔ ピンネ チカㇷ゚ ("a cock")
• チカㇷ゚<n><f> ↔ マㇳネ チカㇷ゚ ("a hen")
• セタ<n><m> ↔ ピンネ セタ ("a dog")
• セタ<n><f> ↔ マㇳネ セタ ("a bitch")

For human beings/gods, the word «オッカイ»/«オッカイヨ» "male" replaces «ピンネ»:

• カムィ<n><mg> ↔ オッカイ カムィ

Noun number

Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix (or possibly separate word) «ウタラ», «ウタレ», or «ウタリ».

• アイアイ<n><pl> ↔ アイアイウタラ
• ウㇺマ<n><pl> ↔ ウㇺマウタラ
• アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌウタラ

Additionally, the morpheme «ウ» is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality

• アㇺ<n><pl> ↔ アム
• アシキペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アシキペㇳト゚
• アㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アト゚
• チェㇷ゚<n><pl> ↔ チェㇷ゚ヌ
• フラ<n><pl> ↔ フラヌ
• イタㇰ<n><pl> ↔ イタク
• クㇳ<n><pl> ↔ クット゚
• ニシ<n><pl> ↔ ニシュ

However, sometimes the «ウ» morpheme is used as a prefix instead:

• イクㇱペ<n><pl> ↔ ウクㇱペ
• イリワㇰ<n><pl> ↔ ウイリワㇰ
• ケマ<n><pl> ↔ ウケマ
• ニマキ<n><pl> ↔ ウニマキ

Lastly, there appear to be other methods of pluralizing, including reduplication, and the use of the morpheme «cha»:

• ペ<n><pl> ↔ ペペ
• ペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ ペㇳチャ

Noun affinity

In Ainu, the suffixes «ポ» (<end2>, トノケ (<end1>) indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary or endearing way (thus the use of "end", short for endear), akin to "my dear", while «ニㇱパケ» can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way <hon>, akin to "my honored" in English:

• アㇰ<n><end2> ↔ アㇰポ
• ト゚レㇱ<n><end2> ↔ ト゚レㇱポ
• アアㇰ<n><end1> ↔ アアㇰ トノケ
• アポホ<n><end1> ↔ アポホ トノケ
• アニㇱ<n><end1> ↔ アニㇱ トノケ
• アユポ<n><end1> ↔ アユポ トノケ
• アミチ<n><end1> ↔ アミチ トノケ

• アユポ<n><hon> ↔ アユポ ニㇱパケ
• アアㇰ<n><hon> ↔ アアㇰ ニㇱパケ
• アトノ<n><hon> ↔ アトノ ニㇱパケ

Verbalization

Nouns <n> can sometimes become verbs (using the tag for verbalization, <vz> by taking «カラ» (to do) «コロ» (to possess) after them:

• イキリ<n><vz> ↔ イキリカラ (from "a seam" to "to sew"}}
• アット゚ㇱ<n><vz> ↔ アット゚ㇱカラ (from "cloth" to "to weave")
• シセイ<n><vz> ↔ チセイカラ (from "a house" to "to build a house")
• ハウ<n><vz> ↔ ハウコロ (from "the voice" to "to crow; to bark; to neigh")
• ホニ<n><vz> ↔ ホニコロ (from "the stomach" to "to conceive")
• カヤ<n><vz> ↔ カヤコロ (from "a sail" to "to sail"

Verb Passification

The particle «ア» in Ainu can sometimes signify the passive voice <pasv> when placed before a verb <vblex>:

• ヌ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アヌ ("to hear" becomes "to be heard")
• ヌイェ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アヌイェ ("to write" becomes "to be written")
• ライケ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アライケ ("to kill" becomes "to be killed")

However, «ア» doesn't always signify this, and there are cases where it is used more like a post-position.

Verb Transitivity

The particle «エ» can make an intransitive verb <iv> into a transitive one (using the make-transitive tag <tvx> when used as a prefix:

• キラ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エキラ ("to run away" becomes "to run away with")
• ミㇰ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エミㇰ ("to bark" becomes "to bark at")
• ミナ<vblex><iv><tvx> ↔ エミナ ("to laugh" becomes "to laugh at")

Letter changes

To be completed and not considered for part of Ainu grammar assignment

• No voiced stop may begin a sentence but sometimes voicing occurs: k->d, p->b, t->d

Chi is sometimes changed into t before utara, and u is dropped:

 * Heikattara = heikachi + utara = "lads"
 * Matkattara = matkachi + utara = "girls"

He/hei becomes se/sei in some places:

 * Hekachi -> sekachi ("a lad")

Ko becomes cho and vice versa:

 * koropok -> choropok "underneath"

Pa becomes cha sometimes:

 * upaskuma -> uchashkuma "preaching"

N becomes m before b or m:

 * tan be -> tambe "this thing"
 * tan matkachi -> tammakatchi "this girl

Ra and ri become n before n and ra, and t before t:

 * kara nangoro -> kan nangoro "will make"
 * oara raige -> oan-raige "to kill outright"
 * ara tuye -> oattuye "to cut through
 * ashiri no -> ashin-no "newly"

Ro becomes t before chi and t, and becomes n before n:

 * ku goro chisei -> ku kot chisei "my house"
 * ku goro toi -> ku kottoi "my garden"
 * ku-goro-nishpa -> ku konnishpa "my master"

Ru becomes n before n:

 * an guru ne -> an gun' ne "it is a person"

If word ending in vowel is followed by word starting with vowel, first vowel is sometimes dropped:

 * moshiri ebitta -> moshir' ebitta "the whole world"
 *ota moshiri un guru -> oya moshir' un guru "a foreigner"
 * Utara, obitta -> utar' obitta "everybody"

Special emphasis can be given to a noun/adj ending with a vowel by reduplication of the previous syllable where the consonant is replaced with "h":

 * nimaki -> nimakihi "a tooth"
 * to -> toho "a day" "a lake"
 * pirika -> pirikaha "good"
 * kunne -> kunnehe "black" "dark"

Often it is customary to reduplicate the final vowel:

 * cha -> chaha "twigs"
 * hochi -> hochihi "a sum"
 * wenkuri -> wen-kurihi "a rain cloud"