Difference between revisions of "Dzongkha/Grammar"
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| − | + | == Parts of Speech == | |
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| + | === Determiner === | ||
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| + | There are three determiner classes in Ainu: numeral determiners ({{tag|ndet}}), nominal demonstratives ({{tag|ndom}}), and anaphoric demonstratives ({{tag|adom}}). It is typologically interesting that in Ainu, all determiners must be prenominal and cannot be an NP by themselves. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|チセ{{tag|n}}{{tag|ndom}}|タン チセ}} ("this house") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|チセ{{tag|n}}{{tag|ndet}}|ト゚ チセ}} ("this house") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|ト゚ㇷ゚{{tag|bn}}{{tag|ndet}}|ト゚ㇷ゚}} ("two things") | ||
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| + | === Verb === | ||
| + | Because Verbs in Ainu {{tag|vblex}} have only the indicative mood {{tag|pri}}, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense {{tag|pres}} continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs {{tag|vaux}} «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|クキㇰ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|vaux}}{{tag|pres}}|クキㇰシリネ}} ("I strike" becomes "I am striking") | ||
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| + | Verbs are split into four classes based on valency: zero-argument verbs ({{tag|av}}), intransitive verbs ({{tag|iv}}), transitive verbs ({{tag|tv}}), and the copula ({{tag|cop}}). While other languages have a separate class for adjectives, Ainu expresses adjectival content through intransitive verbs. | ||
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| + | Zero-argument verbs are meteorological predicates, most of which contain the subject シㇼ ("appearance/land"): | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|シㇼピㇼカ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|av}}|シㇼピㇼカ}} ("it is good weather") | ||
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| + | Intransitive verbs take S series verbal affixes, transitive verbs take A and O series affixes, and the copula ネ takes A series markers but not O series. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|ネ{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|cop}}|ネ}} ("be/become") | ||
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| + | === Pronoun === | ||
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| + | === Adverb === | ||
| + | Adverbs in Ainu {{tag|adv}} seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives: | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|アシリ{{tag|adv}}|アシンノ}} ("new" becomes "newly") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|ソン{{tag|adv}}|ソンノ}} ("true" becomes "truly") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|モイレ{{tag|adv}}|モイレタラ}} ("slow" becomes "slowly") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|ラチ{{tag|adv}}|ラチタラ}} ("gentle" becomes "gently") | ||
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| + | The adverbs of affirmation are «エ», «ルウェ», «ルウェ ウン», «オプンキ», «ヤㇰウン», all of which mean "yes," and «オハイネ» which means "just so; so it is." The adverbs of negation are «セエンネ» and «ショモ», both of which mean "no; not." | ||
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| + | === Article === | ||
| + | Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag {{tag|det}} to denote determiner and {{tag|ind}} to denote indefiniteness. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ アイヌ}} ("a man") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|チセイ{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ チセイ}} ("a house") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|チコイキㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}|シネ チコイキㇷ゚}} ("an animal") | ||
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| + | However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag {{tag|sg}}) varying by context: | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ アイヌ}} ("one man") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|シウェンテㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ シウェンテㇷ゚}} ("one woman") | ||
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| + | For the definite article ({{tag|def}} the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used: | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|クル{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイ クル}} ("(the) person") | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|チェㇷ゚{{tag|n}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|ネイ チェㇷ゚}} ("(the) fish") | ||
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| + | === Noun === | ||
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| + | Nouns ({{tag|n}}) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case. Other words are combined with nouns to express this information: | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}|アイヌ}} | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|アイヌ ウタラ}} | ||
| + | *{{morphTest|アイヌ{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|シネ アイヌ}} | ||
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| + | Nouns are classified into three categories: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns. Common nouns are further divided into "conceptual" {{tag|conc}} and "possessive" {{tag|pos}} forms. The possessive forms have suffixes for possession, and prefixes "of the A (= transitive subject) series to cross-reference the possessor"(Bugaeva, 470). We will use the tags {{tag|cn}}, {{tag|rn}}, and {{tag|bn}} to denote common, relational, and bound nouns, respectively. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|シㇰ{{tag|n}}{{tag|cn}}{{tag|pos}}|クシㇰイヒ}} ("my eye") | ||
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| + | Relational nouns take the place of adverbs and prepositions from European languages to express spatial/temporal relations. They have conceptual and possessive forms but relational nouns are marked for person/number of the possessor with object prefixes. | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|サㇺ{{tag|n}}{{tag|rn}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|エンサㇺ}} ("near me") | ||
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| + | However, there are no prefixes for 3rd person nouns, and possessive suffixes are only for 3rd person animate {{tag|aa}} possessors: | ||
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| + | *{{morphTest|サㇺ{{tag|n}}{{tag|rn}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|メノコ サㇺア}} ("near the woman") | ||
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| + | Bound nouns can't occur by themselves and must be modified with either a noun, determiner, or relative clause. There are only six of these: クㇽ ("person") ウタㇽ ("people") ウㇱケ/ウㇱケヘ ("(the) place/time (of)") ペ/ㇷ゚ ("thing/person") ヒケ ("the one/side") ヒ/イ ("place/time"). | ||
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| + | [[Category: sp21_GrammarDocumentation]] [[Category: Dzongkha]] | ||
Revision as of 15:52, 5 March 2021
Parts of Speech
Determiner
There are three determiner classes in Ainu: numeral determiners (<ndet>), nominal demonstratives (<ndom>), and anaphoric demonstratives (<adom>). It is typologically interesting that in Ainu, all determiners must be prenominal and cannot be an NP by themselves.
- チセ<n><ndom> ↔ タン チセ ("this house")
- チセ<n><ndet> ↔ ト゚ チセ ("this house")
- ト゚ㇷ゚<bn><ndet> ↔ ト゚ㇷ゚ ("two things")
Verb
Because Verbs in Ainu <vblex> have only the indicative mood <pri>, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense <pres> continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs <vaux> «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.
- クキㇰ<vblex><vaux><pres> ↔ クキㇰシリネ ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")
Verbs are split into four classes based on valency: zero-argument verbs (<av>), intransitive verbs (<iv>), transitive verbs (<tv>), and the copula (<cop>). While other languages have a separate class for adjectives, Ainu expresses adjectival content through intransitive verbs.
Zero-argument verbs are meteorological predicates, most of which contain the subject シㇼ ("appearance/land"):
- シㇼピㇼカ<vblex><av> ↔ シㇼピㇼカ ("it is good weather")
Intransitive verbs take S series verbal affixes, transitive verbs take A and O series affixes, and the copula ネ takes A series markers but not O series.
- ネ<vblex><cop> ↔ ネ ("be/become")
Pronoun
Adverb
Adverbs in Ainu <adv> seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:
- アシリ<adv> ↔ アシンノ ("new" becomes "newly")
- ソン<adv> ↔ ソンノ ("true" becomes "truly")
- モイレ<adv> ↔ モイレタラ ("slow" becomes "slowly")
- ラチ<adv> ↔ ラチタラ ("gentle" becomes "gently")
The adverbs of affirmation are «エ», «ルウェ», «ルウェ ウン», «オプンキ», «ヤㇰウン», all of which mean "yes," and «オハイネ» which means "just so; so it is." The adverbs of negation are «セエンネ» and «ショモ», both of which mean "no; not."
Article
Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag <det> to denote determiner and <ind> to denote indefiniteness.
- アイヌ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("a man")
- チセイ<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チセイ ("a house")
- チコイキㇷ゚<n><det><ind> ↔ シネ チコイキㇷ゚ ("an animal")
However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag <sg>) varying by context:
- アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ ("one man")
- シウェンテㇷ゚<n><sg> ↔ シネ シウェンテㇷ゚ ("one woman")
For the definite article (<def> the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:
- クル<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ クル ("(the) person")
- チェㇷ゚<n><det><def> ↔ ネイ チェㇷ゚ ("(the) fish")
Noun
Nouns (<n>) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case. Other words are combined with nouns to express this information:
- アイヌ<n> ↔ アイヌ
- アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌ ウタラ
- アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネ アイヌ
Nouns are classified into three categories: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns. Common nouns are further divided into "conceptual" <conc> and "possessive" <pos> forms. The possessive forms have suffixes for possession, and prefixes "of the A (= transitive subject) series to cross-reference the possessor"(Bugaeva, 470). We will use the tags <cn>, <rn>, and <bn> to denote common, relational, and bound nouns, respectively.
- シㇰ<n><cn><pos> ↔ クシㇰイヒ ("my eye")
Relational nouns take the place of adverbs and prepositions from European languages to express spatial/temporal relations. They have conceptual and possessive forms but relational nouns are marked for person/number of the possessor with object prefixes.
- サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p1><sg> ↔ エンサㇺ ("near me")
However, there are no prefixes for 3rd person nouns, and possessive suffixes are only for 3rd person animate <aa> possessors:
- サㇺ<n><rn><pos><p3><sg> ↔ メノコ サㇺア ("near the woman")
Bound nouns can't occur by themselves and must be modified with either a noun, determiner, or relative clause. There are only six of these: クㇽ ("person") ウタㇽ ("people") ウㇱケ/ウㇱケヘ ("(the) place/time (of)") ペ/ㇷ゚ ("thing/person") ヒケ ("the one/side") ヒ/イ ("place/time").
