Difference between revisions of "Ainu/Grammar"

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TODO: reformat everything
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== Parts of Speech ==
  
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* I - intensifying prefix  
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=== Adverb ===
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  * I-se-po - a hare ("the little squealer")
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Adverbs in Ainu {{tag|adv}} seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:
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  * I-se    - to squeal
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 +
*{{morphTest|ashiri{{tag|adv}}|ashin'no}}
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*{{morphTest|son{{tag|adv}}|sonno}}
 +
*{{morphTest|moire{{tag|adv}}|moire-tara}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ratchi{{tag|adv}}|ratchi-tara}}
 +
 
 +
=== Article ===
 +
Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag {{tag|det}} to denote determiner and {{tag|ind}} to denote indefiniteness.
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|ainu{{tag|det}}|shine ainu}} (a man)
 +
*{{morphTest|chisei{{tag|det}}|shine chisei}} (a house)
 +
*{{morphTest|chikoikip{{tag|det}}|shine chikoikip}} (an animal)
 +
 
 +
However, «shine» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag {{tag|sg}}) varying by context:
 +
*{{morphTest|ainu{{tag|sg}}|shine ainu}} "one man"
 +
*{{morphTest|shiwentep{{tag|sg}}|shine shiwentep}} "one woman"
 +
 
 +
For the definite article ({{tag|def}} the demonstrative adjective «nei» is sometimes used:
 +
*{{morphTest|guru{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|nei guru}} "(the) person"
 +
*{{morphTest|chep{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}|nei chep}} "(the) fish"
 +
 
 +
=== Noun ===
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 +
Nouns ({{tag|n}}) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case.
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|ainu{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dim}}|
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 +
=== Adjective ===
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There are two types of adjectives {{tag|adj}} in Ainu, simple and compound. Both can express number. There are at least 15 adjectival endings for simple adjectives. Some examples include:
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*{{morphTest|hek{{tag|adj}}|hekai}}
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*{{morphTest|shise{{tag|adj}}|shisak}}
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*{{morphTest|ra{{tag|adj}}|ram}}
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*{{morphTest|reta{{tag|adj}}|retara}}
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 +
For compound adjectives, the endings are an, koro, ne, nei, o, sak, tek, un, and ush:
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|kera{{tag|adj}}|kera an}}
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*{{morphTest|haro{{tag|adj}}|haro koro}}
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*{{morphTest|ramu{{tag|adj}}|ramu-sak}}
 +
*{{morphTest|nuchak{{tag|adj}}|nuchaktek}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ashkan{{tag|adj}}|ashkanne}}
 +
*{{morphTest|paro{{tag|adj}}|paro-un}}
 +
*{{morphTest|kem{{tag|adj}}|kem-ush}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ki{{tag|adj}}|ki-o}}
 +
 
 +
== Adjective Comparison ==
 +
Often in Ainu adjectival degree is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the word naa can be used before the adjective {{tag|adj}} in question to mark the comparative form {{tag|comp}}, and iyotta can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form {{tag|sup}}:
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|pirika{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|naa pirika}}
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*{{morphTest|pirika{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|iyotta pirika}}
 +
*{{morphTest|pon{{tag|adj}}{{tag|comp}}|naa pon}}
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*{{morphTest|pon{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sup}}|iyotta pon}}
 +
 
 +
== Adjective Pluralization ==
 +
Adjectives {{tag|adj}} may be pluralized {{tag|pl}} with the suffix plural particle pa:
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|pirika{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|pirikapa}}
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*{{morphTest|wen{{tag|adj}}|wenpa}}
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*{{morphTest|pon{{tag|adj}}|ponpa}}
 +
*{{morphTest|harokoro{{tag|adj}}|harokoropa}}
 +
 
 +
== Adjectivalization ==
 +
 
 +
The prefix chi attaches to transitive verbs to make them passive where they act as adjectives.
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|ama{{tag|adj}}|chiama}}
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*{{morphTest|kuba{{tag|adj}}|chikuba}}
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*{{morphTest|pereba{{tag|adj}}|chipereba}}
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*{{morphTest|tereke{{tag|adj}}|chitereke}}
 +
*{{morphTest|ye{{tag|adj}}|chiye}}
 +
 
 +
== Diminuitive ==
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In Ainu, «po marks the diminutive particle, denoted as {{tag|dim}}
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|ise{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|dim}}|isepo}}
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*{{morphTest|ponbe{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|ponbepo}}
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*{{morphTest|chikap{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|chikap-po}}
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*{{morphTest|okkai{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|okkai-po}}
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*{{morphTest|chi-ika-nai{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|chi-ika-nai-po}}
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*{{morphTest|chishnai{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|chishnai-po}}
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*{{morphTest|tukara{{tag|n}}{{tag|dim}}|tukarapo}}
 +
 
 +
== Intensifier ==
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In Ainu, the morpheme «i» can mark intensity ({{tag|int}})
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|se{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|dim}}|ise}}
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 +
 
 +
== Nominalizing ==
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In Ainu, adding the morpheme i, hi, or ambe to adjectives {{tag|adj}} or verbs {{tag|vblex}} can express abstract qualities {{tag|abs}}:
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 +
*{{morphTest|nupeki{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|nupeki-i}} ("bright" becomes "brightness"
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*{{morphTest|nupeki{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|nupeki-hi}}
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*{{morphTest|nupeki{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|nupeki-ambe}}
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*{{morphTest|itak{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|itak-i}} ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
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*{{morphTest|itak{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|itak-hi}}
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*{{morphTest|itak{{tag|n}}{{tag|abs}}|itak-ambe}}
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Adding the suffix pe (realized as p) to adjectives {{tag|adj}} can nominalize them {{tag|n}} to mean "an {{tag|adj}} thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pass}} to mean "thing that is {{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pass}}":
 +
 
 +
*{{morphTest|pase{{tag|n}}|pasep}} ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
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*{{morphTest|poro{{tag|n}}|porop}} ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
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*{{morphTest|ae{{tag|n}}|aep}} ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
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*{{morphTest|aye{{tag|n}}|ayep}} ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")
  
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* Po - diminutive particlue
 
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  * ponbepo - a very little thing
 
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  * po - a child
 
  
 
== Letter changes ==
 
== Letter changes ==
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   * wenkuri -> wen-kurihi "a rain cloud"
 
   * wenkuri -> wen-kurihi "a rain cloud"
  
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== Article ==
 
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There is no article in Ainu but the numeral adjective shine ("one") is often used as the indefinite article a/an:
 
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  * shine ainu ("a man")
 
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  * shine chisei "a house"
 
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  * shine chikoikip "an animal"
 
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However, shine is also used to denote one of a thing, varying by context:
 
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  * shine ainu "one man"
 
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  * shine shiwentep "one woman"
 
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For the definite article the demonsstrative adjectives are sometimes used:
 
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  * nei guru ye "that (the) person said"
 
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  * nei chep pirika ruwe ne "that (the) fish is good"
 
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  * toan kambi koro wa ek "bring that (the) letter"
 
  
 
== Noun Gender ==  
 
== Noun Gender ==  
 
Nouns are subject to no changes to indicate gender, number or case. Often Ainu has different words for differently gendered animate objects:
 
Nouns are subject to no changes to indicate gender, number or case. Often Ainu has different words for differently gendered animate objects:
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  * ainu "man", mat-ainu "woman"
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* ainu "man", mat-ainu "woman"
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  * shiuk "a he bear", kuchan "a she bear"
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* shiuk "a he bear", kuchan "a she bear"
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When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word pinne "male" or matne "female" are placed before it:
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When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «pinne "male" or «matne "female" are placed before it:
  
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* pinne chikap "a cock", matne chikap "a hen"
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*{{morphTest|chikap{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|pinne chikap}} "a cock",  
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* pinne seta "a dog", matne seta "a bitch"
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*{{morphTest|chikap{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|matne chikap}} "a hen"
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*{{morphTest|seta{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|pinne seta}} "a dog",  
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*{{morphTest|seta{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}|matne seta}} "a bitch"
  
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For human beings/gods, the word okkai/okkaiyo "male" replaces pinne
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For human beings/gods, the word okkai/okkaiyo "male" replaces pinne:
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 +
*{{morphTest|kamui{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}|okkai-kamui}}
  
 
== Noun number ==  
 
== Noun number ==  
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 +
Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix -utara, -utare, or -utari.
 +
 +
*{{morphTest|aiai{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|aiai-utara}}
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*{{morphTest|umma{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|umma-utara}}
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*{{morphTest|ainu{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ainu-utara}}
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Additionally, the morpheme u is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality
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*{{morphTest|am{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|amu}}
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*{{morphTest|ashikipet{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ashikipettu}}
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*{{morphTest|at{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|atu}}
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*{{morphTest|chep{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|chep-nu}}
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*{{morphTest|hura{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|huranu}}
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*{{morphTest|itak{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|itaku}}
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*{{morphTest|kut{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|kuttu}}
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*{{morphTest|nishi{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|nishu}}
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 +
However, sometimes the u morpheme is used as a prefix instead:
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 +
*{{morphTest|ikushpe{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ukushpe}}
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*{{morphTest|iriwak{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|uiriwak}}
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*{{morphTest|kema{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|ukema}}
 +
*{{morphTest|nimaki{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|unimaki}}
 +
 +
Lastly, there appear to be other methods of pluralizing, including reduplication, and the use of the morpheme cha
 +
 +
*{{morphTest|pe{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|pepe}}
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*{{morphTest|pet{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|petcha}}
 +
 +
== Noun affinity ==
 +
In Ainu, the suffixes -po, tonoge indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary way {{tag|endear}}, akin to "my dear", while nishpake can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way {{tag|honor}}, akin to "my honored" in English:
 +
 +
*{{morphTest|ak{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|ak-po}}
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*{{morphTest|turesh{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|turesh-po}}
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*{{morphTest|aak{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|aak-tonoge}}
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*{{morphTest|apoho{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|apoho-tonoge}}
 +
*{{morphTest|anish{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|anish-tonoge}}
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*{{morphTest|ayupo{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|ayupo-tonoge}}
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*{{morphTest|amichi{{tag|n}}{{tag|endear}}|amichi-tonoge}}
 +
 +
*{{morphTest|ayupo{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|ayupo-nishpake}}
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*{{morphTest|aak{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|aak-nishpake}}
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*{{morphTest|atono{{tag|n}}{{tag|honor}}|atono-nishpake}}
  
  
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== Noun case ==
 
  
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== Verbalization ==
 +
Nouns can sometimes become verbs {{tag|vblex}} by taking -kara (to do) -koro (to possess) after them:
  
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== Turning nouns into verbs ==
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*{{morphTest|ikiri{{tag|vblex}}|ikiri-kara}} (from "a seam" to "to sew"}}
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Nouns can sometimes become verbs by taking -kara (to do) or -koro (to possess) after them:
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*{{morphTest|attush{{tag|vblex}}|attush-kara}} (from "cloth" to "to weave")
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* ikiri "a seam" ikiri-kara "to sew"
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*{{morphTest|chisei{{tag|vblex}}|chisei-kara}} (from "a house" to "to build a house")
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* attush "cloth" attush-kara "to weave"
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*{{morphTest|hau{{tag|vblex}}|hau-koro}} (from "the voice" to "to crow; to bark; to neigh")
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* chisei "a house" chisei-kara "to build a house"
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*{{morphTest|honi{{tag|vblex}}|honi-koro}} (from  "the stomach" to "to conceive")
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* hau "the voice" hau-koro "to crow; to bark; to neigh"
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*{{morphTest|kaya{{tag|vblex}}|kaya-koro}} (from "a sail" to "to sail"
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* honi "the stomach" honi-koro "to conceive"
 
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* kaya "a sail" kaya-koro "to sail"
 

Revision as of 14:25, 9 February 2017

Parts of Speech

Adverb

Adverbs in Ainu <adv> seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:

  • ashiri<adv> ↔ ashin'no
  • son<adv> ↔ sonno
  • moire<adv> ↔ moire-tara
  • ratchi<adv> ↔ ratchi-tara

Article

Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag <det> to denote determiner and <ind> to denote indefiniteness.

  • ainu<det> ↔ shine ainu (a man)
  • chisei<det> ↔ shine chisei (a house)
  • chikoikip<det> ↔ shine chikoikip (an animal)

However, «shine» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag <sg>) varying by context:

  • ainu<sg> ↔ shine ainu "one man"
  • shiwentep<sg> ↔ shine shiwentep "one woman"

For the definite article (<def> the demonstrative adjective «nei» is sometimes used:

  • guru<det><def> ↔ nei guru "(the) person"
  • chep<det><def> ↔ nei chep "(the) fish"

Noun

Nouns (<n>) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case.

  • ainu<n><sg><dim> ↔ {{{2}}}
  • attush<vblex> ↔ attush-kara (from "cloth" to "to weave")
  • chisei<vblex> ↔ chisei-kara (from "a house" to "to build a house")
  • hau<vblex> ↔ hau-koro (from "the voice" to "to crow; to bark; to neigh")
  • honi<vblex> ↔ honi-koro (from "the stomach" to "to conceive")
  • kaya<vblex> ↔ kaya-koro (from "a sail" to "to sail"
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