Ainu/Grammar

Parts of Speech

Verb

Because Verbs in Ainu <vblex> have only the indicative mood <pri>, conjugations use auxiliary verbs. For example, a present tense <pres> continuing action is denoted by the auxiliary verbs <vaux> «shiri ne», while the auxiliary «okere», when placed after a verb, means the verb has concluded.

• クキㇰ<vblex><vaux><pres> ↔ クキㇰシリネ ("I strike" becomes "I am striking")

Pronoun

Ainu has 5 pronoun <pn> classes: personal, possessive, relative, indefinite, and interrogative.

Personal pronouns are divided into first person singular <p1><sg> and second person singular <p2><sg>. The first person singular pronoun start with «k» and can be used by male or female speakers:

• クアニ<pn><p1><sg><mf> ↔ クアニ (this and the following three pronouns mean "I")
• カニ<pn><p1><sg><mf> ↔ カニ
• アノカィ<pn><p1><sg><mf> ↔ アノカィ
• チョカィ<pn><p1><sg><mf> ↔ チョカィ

The second person singular pronouns are «エ»- (for verb attachment), «エアニ», «ヤニ», «アオカィ», and «アノカィ»:

• エアニ<pn><p2><sg><mf> ↔ エアニ (this and the following three pronouns mean "you")
• ヤニ<pn><p2><sg><mf> ↔ ヤニ
• アオカィ<pn><p2><sg><mf> ↔ アオカィ
• アノカィ<pn><p2><sg><mf> ↔ アノカィ
• ライケ<pn><p2><mf> ↔ エライケ ("raige = to kill" becomes "you kill")
• アㇷ゚カㇱ<pn><p2><mf> ↔ エアㇷ゚カㇱ ("to walk" becomes "you walk")

The third person <p3> pronoun is instead replaced with «シロマ», «シヌマ», and demonstrative adjectives, to mean "he; she; it", with no regard for animacy.

Possessive pronouns employ the use of «コロ» to the personal pronoun (using <px1sg> for first person singular possessive, <px2sg> for second person singular possessive, <px1pl> for first person plural possessive, and <px2pl> for second person plural possessive):

• ク<pn><px1sg><mf> ↔ クコロ
• エ<pn><px2sg><mf> ↔ エコロ
• チ<pn><px1pl><mf> ↔ チコロ
• エチ<pn><px2pl><mf> ↔ エチコロ

Note that sometimes the particle «a» is prefixed with the verb «コロ» ("to possess") to indicate first person plural possessive when place before nouns:

• ミチ<pn><px1pl> ↔ アコロ ミチ ("father" becomes "our father")
• ニㇱパ<pn><px1pl> ↔ アコン ニㇱパ ("master" becomes "our master")
• エカシ<pn><px1pl> ↔ アコロ エカシ ("ancestors" becomes "our ancestors")
• ペ<pn><px1pl> ↔ アコロペ ("things" becomes "our things")

This is possibly because «アコロ» is the polite mode of speech replacing «エコロ» described above.

Adverb

Adverbs in Ainu <adv> seem to be created from adding suffixes to adjectives:

• アシリ<adv> ↔ アシンノ ("new" becomes "newly")
• ソン<adv> ↔ ソンノ ("true" becomes "truly")
• モイレ<adv> ↔ モイレタラ ("slow" becomes "slowly")
• ラチ<adv> ↔ ラチタラ ("gentle" becomes "gently")

The adverbs of affirmation are «エ», «ルウェ», «ルウェ ウン», «オプンキ», «ヤㇰウン», all of which mean "yes," and «オハイネ» which means "just so; so it is." The adverbs of negation are «セエンネ» and «ショモ», both of which mean "no; not."

Article

Although there is no proper article in Ainu, the numeral adjective «shine» can be used as an indefinite article, for which we will use the tag <det> to denote determiner and <ind> to denote indefiniteness.

• アイヌ<det><ind> ↔ シネアイヌ ("a man")
• チセイ<det><ind> ↔ シネチセイ ("a house")
• チコイキㇷ゚<det><ind> ↔ シネチコイキㇷ゚ ("an animal")

However, «シネ» is also used to denote one of a thing (denoted by the tag <sg>) varying by context:

• アイヌ<sg> ↔ シネアイヌ ("one man")
• シウェンテㇷ゚<sg> ↔ シネシウェンテㇷ゚ ("one woman")

For the definite article (<def> the demonstrative adjective «ネイ» is sometimes used:

• クル<det><def> ↔ ネイクル ("(the) person")
• チェㇷ゚<det><def> ↔ ネイチェㇷ゚ ("(the) fish")

Noun

Nouns (<n>) in Ainu do not undergo any morphological processes to denote number, gender, or case. Other words are combined with nouns to express this information:

• アイヌ<n> ↔ アイヌ
• アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌウタラ
• アイヌ<n><sg> ↔ シネアイヌ

Adjective

There are two types of adjectives <adj> in Ainu, simple and compound. Both can express number. There are at least 15 adjectival endings for simple adjectives. Some examples include:

• ヘㇰ<adj> ↔ ヘカイ
• シセ<adj> ↔ シサㇰ
• ラ<adj> ↔ ラㇺ
• レタ<adj> ↔ レタラ

For compound adjectives, the endings are «アン», «コロ», «ネ», «ネイ», «オ», «サㇰ», «テㇰ», «ウン», and «ウㇱ»:

• ケラ<adj> ↔ ケラアン
• ハロ<adj> ↔ ハロコロ
• ラム<adj> ↔ ラムサㇰ
• ヌチャㇰ<adj> ↔ ヌチャㇰテㇰ
• アㇱカン<adj> ↔ アㇱカンネ
• パロ<adj> ↔ パロウン
• ケㇺ<adj> ↔ ケㇺウㇱ
• キ<adj> ↔ キオ

Adjective Comparison

Often in Ainu adjectival degree is left to be inferred from the context, but if required, the word «ナア» can be used before the adjective <adj> in question to mark the comparative form <comp>, and «イヨッタ» can be used in the same way to mark the superlative form <sup>:

• ピリカ<adj><comp> ↔ ナアピリカ
• ピリカ<adj><sup> ↔ イヨッタピリカ
• ポン<adj><comp> ↔ ナアポン
• ポン<adj><sup> ↔ イヨッタポン

Adjective Pluralization

Adjectives <adj> may be pluralized <pl> with the suffix plural particle «パ»:

• ピリカ<adj><pl> ↔ ピリカパ
• ウェン<adj> ↔ ウェンパ
• ポン<adj> ↔ ポンパ
• ハロコロ<adj> ↔ ハロコロパ

Adjectivalization

The prefix «チ» attaches to transitive verbs to make them passive where they act as adjectives.

• アマ<adj> ↔ チアマ
• クパ<adj> ↔ チクパ
• ペレパ<adj> ↔ チペレパ
• テレケ<adj> ↔ チテレケ
• イェ<adj> ↔ チイェ

Diminuitive

In Ainu, «ポ» marks the diminutive particle, denoted as <dim>

• イセ<vblex><dim> ↔ イセポ
• ポンペ<n><dim> ↔ ポンペポ
• チカㇷ゚<n><dim> ↔ チカㇷ゚ポ
• オッカイ<n><dim> ↔ オッカイポ
• チイカナイ<n><dim> ↔ チイカナイポ
• チㇱナイ<n><dim> ↔ チㇱナイポ
• ト゚カラ<n><dim> ↔ ト゚カラポ

Intensifier

Note: still searching for more examples, so this is not intended to be part of the grammar assignment. In Ainu, the morpheme «イ» can mark intensity (<int>)

• セ<vblex><int> ↔ イセ

Nominalizing

In Ainu, adding the morpheme «イ», «ヒ», or «アㇺペ» to adjectives <adj> or verbs <vblex> can express abstract qualities <abs>:

• ヌペキ<n><abs> ↔ ヌペキイ ("bright" becomes "brightness"
• ヌペキ<n><abs> ↔ ヌペキヒ
• ヌペキ<n><abs> ↔ ヌペキアㇺペ
• イタㇰ<n><abs> ↔ イタㇰイ ("to speak" becomes "a speech")
• イタㇰ<n><abs> ↔ イタㇰヒ
• イタㇰ<n><abs> ↔ イタㇰアㇺペ

Adding the suffix «ペ» (realized as «ㇷ゚») to adjectives <adj> can nominalize them <n> to mean "an <adj> thing" and can also nominalize passive verbs <vblex><pass> to mean "thing that is <vblex><pass>":

• パセ<n> ↔ パセㇷ゚ ("heavy" becomes "a heavy thing", not "heaviness")
• ポロ<n> ↔ ポロㇷ゚ ("large" becomes "a large thing", not "largeness")
• アエ<n> ↔ アエㇷ゚ ("to be eaten" becomes "food")
• アイェ<n> ↔ アイェㇷ゚ ("to be spoken" becomes "the thing said", not "speech")

Noun Gender

Nouns are subject to no changes to indicate gender, number or case. Often Ainu has different words for differently gendered animate objects:

• «アイヌ» "man", «マㇳアイヌ» "woman"
• «シウㇰ» "a he bear", «クチャン» "a she bear"

When an object has no special masculine or feminine form but the sex of the object is relevant, the word «ピンネ "male" or «マㇳネ» "female" are placed before it:

• チカㇷ゚<n><m> ↔ ピンネチカㇷ゚ ("a cock")
• チカㇷ゚<n><f> ↔ マㇳネチカㇷ゚ ("a hen")
• セタ<n><m> ↔ ピンネセタ ("a dog")
• セタ<n><f> ↔ マㇳネセタ ("a bitch")

For human beings/gods, the word «オッカイ»/«オッカイヨ» "male" replaces «ピンネ»:

• カムィ<n><m> ↔ オッカイカムィ

Noun number

Since the number of the noun is typically indicated by the context or verb, there is no need to use an additional morpheme to express plurality. However, when it is necessary, there are several derivations. The most typical is the suffix (or possibly separate word) «ウタラ», «ウタレ», or «ウタリ».

• アイアイ<n><pl> ↔ アイアイウタラ
• ウㇺマ<n><pl> ↔ ウㇺマウタラ
• アイヌ<n><pl> ↔ アイヌウタラ

Additionally, the morpheme «ウ» is used for a number of nouns as a suffix for plurality

• アㇺ<n><pl> ↔ アム
• アシキペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アシキペㇳト゚
• アㇳ<n><pl> ↔ アト゚
• チェㇷ゚<n><pl> ↔ チェㇷ゚ヌ
• フラ<n><pl> ↔ フラヌ
• イタㇰ<n><pl> ↔ イタク
• クㇳ<n><pl> ↔ クット゚
• ニシ<n><pl> ↔ ニシュ

However, sometimes the «ウ» morpheme is used as a prefix instead:

• イクㇱペ<n><pl> ↔ ウクㇱペ
• イリワㇰ<n><pl> ↔ ウイリワㇰ
• ケマ<n><pl> ↔ ウケマ
• ニマキ<n><pl> ↔ ウニマキ

Lastly, there appear to be other methods of pluralizing, including reduplication, and the use of the morpheme «cha»:

• ペ<n><pl> ↔ ペペ
• ペㇳ<n><pl> ↔ ペㇳチャ

Noun affinity

In Ainu, the suffixes «ポ», トノケ indicate reffering to a noun in a complimentary way <endear>, akin to "my dear", while «nishpake» can indicate referring to a noun in a honorific way <honor>, akin to "my honored" in English:

• アㇰ<n><endear> ↔ アㇰポ
• ト゚レㇱ<n><endear> ↔ ト゚レㇱポ
• アアㇰ<n><endear> ↔ アアㇰトノケ
• アポホ<n><endear> ↔ アポホトノケ
• アニㇱ<n><endear> ↔ アニㇱトノケ
• アユポ<n><endear> ↔ アユポトノケ
• アミチ<n><endear> ↔ アミチトノケ

• アユポ<n><honor> ↔ アユポニㇱパケ
• アアㇰ<n><honor> ↔ アアㇰニㇱパケ
• アトノ<n><honor> ↔ アトノニㇱパケ

Verbalization

Nouns can sometimes become verbs <vblex> by taking «カラ» (to do) «コロ» (to possess) after them:

• イキリ<vblex> ↔ イキリカラ (from "a seam" to "to sew"}}
• アット゚ㇱ<vblex> ↔ アット゚ㇱカラ (from "cloth" to "to weave")
• シセイ<vblex> ↔ チセイカラ (from "a house" to "to build a house")
• ハウ<vblex> ↔ ハウコロ (from "the voice" to "to crow; to bark; to neigh")
• ホニ<vblex> ↔ ホニコロ (from "the stomach" to "to conceive")
• カヤ<vblex> ↔ カヤコロ (from "a sail" to "to sail"

Verb Passification

The particle «ア» in Ainu can sometimes signify the passive voice <pasv> when placed before a verb <vblex>:

• ヌ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アヌ ("to hear" becomes "to be heard")
• ヌイェ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アヌイェ ("to write" becomes "to be written")
• ライケ<vblex><pasv> ↔ アライケ ("to kill" becomes "to be killed")

However, «ア» doesn't always signify this, and there are cases where it is used more like a post-position.

Verb Transitivity

The particle «エ» can make an intransitive verb <iv> into a transitive one <tv> when used as a prefix:

• キラ<vblex><tv> ↔ エキラ ("to run away" becomes "to run away with")
• ミㇰ<vblex><tv> ↔ エミㇰ ("to bark" becomes "to bark at")
• ミナ<vblex><tv> ↔ エミナ ("to laugh" becomes "to laugh at")

Letter changes

To be completed and not considered for part of Ainu grammar assignment

• No voiced stop may begin a sentence but sometimes voicing occurs: k->d, p->b, t->d

Chi is sometimes changed into t before utara, and u is dropped:

 * Heikattara = heikachi + utara = "lads"
 * Matkattara = matkachi + utara = "girls"

He/hei becomes se/sei in some places:

 * Hekachi -> sekachi ("a lad")

Ko becomes cho and vice versa:

 * koropok -> choropok "underneath"

Pa becomes cha sometimes:

 * upaskuma -> uchashkuma "preaching"

N becomes m before b or m:

 * tan be -> tambe "this thing"
 * tan matkachi -> tammakatchi "this girl

Ra and ri become n before n and ra, and t before t:

 * kara nangoro -> kan nangoro "will make"
 * oara raige -> oan-raige "to kill outright"
 * ara tuye -> oattuye "to cut through
 * ashiri no -> ashin-no "newly"

Ro becomes t before chi and t, and becomes n before n:

 * ku goro chisei -> ku kot chisei "my house"
 * ku goro toi -> ku kottoi "my garden"
 * ku-goro-nishpa -> ku konnishpa "my master"

Ru becomes n before n:

 * an guru ne -> an gun' ne "it is a person"

If word ending in vowel is followed by word starting with vowel, first vowel is sometimes dropped:

 * moshiri ebitta -> moshir' ebitta "the whole world"
 *ota moshiri un guru -> oya moshir' un guru "a foreigner"
 * Utara, obitta -> utar' obitta "everybody"

Special emphasis can be given to a noun/adj ending with a vowel by reduplication of the previous syllable where the consonant is replaced with "h":

 * nimaki -> nimakihi "a tooth"
 * to -> toho "a day" "a lake"
 * pirika -> pirikaha "good"
 * kunne -> kunnehe "black" "dark"

Often it is customary to reduplicate the final vowel:

 * cha -> chaha "twigs"
 * hochi -> hochihi "a sum"
 * wenkuri -> wen-kurihi "a rain cloud"