Rungus and English/Contrastive Grammar

Word order

Rungus is VSO whereas English is SVO

• (drg) Momobog ko dialo → (eng) You hit him

  (drg) bobog<v><impf><af> oku<prn><pers><p2><sg><nom> dialo<prn><pers><p3><sg><acc> → (eng) you<prn><pers><subj><p2><mf><sg> hit<vblex><pres> him<prn><pers><obj><p3><m><sg>

Focus morphology

Actor focus

Rungus marks actor focus on the verb af, which indicates that the focus argument is an actor; this is roughly equivalent to active voice in English, which is not morphologically marked

• (drg) Mamanau it ulun → (eng) The person goes

  (drg) panau<v><impf><af> it<det><def><nom> ulun<n> → (eng) the<det><def><sp> person<n><sg> go<vblex><pres><p3><sg>

Patient focus

Rungus marks patient focus on the verb pf, which indicates that the focus argument is a patient; this is roughly equivalent to passive voice in English, which is marked on the verb pp and through promotion of the semantic patient to the syntactic subject

• (drg) Duaton oku dikau → (eng) I am asked by you

  (drg) duat<v><pf> oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> dikau<prn><pers><p2><sg><acc> → (eng) I<prn><pers><subj><p1><mf><sg> be<vblex><p1><sg> ask<vblex><pp> by<pr> you<prn><pers><p2><mf><sg>

Beneficiary focus

Rungus marks beneficiary focus on the verb bf, which indicates that the focus argument is a beneficiary; this has no direct equivalence in English

• (drg) Tinahakan oku do tinggol → (eng) I was given necklaces

  (drg) tahak<v><perf><pf><vol> oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> do<det><ind><acc> tinggol<n> → (eng) I<prn><pers><subj><p1><mf><sg> be<vblex><past><p1><sg> given<adj> necklace<n><pl>

Determiners

In Rungus, determiners mark if the following noun is focused (tagged as nom) or non-focused (tagged as acc); this has no direct equivalence in English

• (drg) Mangagama i tukang do meja → (eng) The workman makes a table

  (drg) gama<v><impf><af> i<det><def><nom> tukang<n> do<det><ind><acc> meja<n> → (eng) the<det><def><sp> workman<n><sg> make<vblex><pres><p3><sg> a<det><ind><sg> table<n><sg>

Determiners are always required in Rungus and can be optional in English (also see the beneficiary focus example)

• (drg) Gamaon oku dot ulun di tagad ku → (eng) My ricefield has been made for me by people

  (drg) gama<v><pf> oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> dot<det><ind><acc> ulun<n> di<det><def><acc> tagad<n> ku<prn><pers><p1><sg><gen> → (eng) the<det><def><sp> workman<n><sg> make<vblex><pres><p3><sg> a<det><ind><sg> table<n><sg>

Possessive pronouns

Rungus expresses possession with genitive pronouns gen; English expresses possession with possessive determiners pos (also see the second determiner example)

• (drg) Mangatag oku di jiip ku → (eng) I repair my jeep

  (drg) atag<v><impf><af> oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> i<det><def><acc> jiip<n> ku<prn><pers><p1><sg><gen> → (eng) I<prn><pers><subj><p1><mf><sg> repair<vblex><pres> my<det><pos><sg> jeep<n><sg>

Nominal/adjectival predicates

Rungus nouns and adjectives can be predicative on their own (in which case they do not require determiners); English nouns and adjectives would require copulas. Noun:

• (drg) Ulun oku → (eng) I am a person

  (drg) ulun<n> oku<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> → (eng) I<prn><pers><subj><p1><mf><sg> be<vblex><pres><p1><sg> person<n><sg>

Adjective:

• (drg) Agazo ialo → (eng) He is big

  (drg) agazo<adj> ialo<prn><pers><p3><sg><nom><emph> → (eng) he<prn><pers><subj><p3><m><sg> be<vblex><pres><p3><sg> big<adj><sint>