LING073 - New pages [en]

Kickapoo and English/Additions

2026-05-14T15:30:18Z

Kpeng1:

We added over 100 word stems, 3 disambiguation rules, and 2 structural transfer rules

=== Transfer Rule Pattern 1: Negative Particle + Finite Verb ===

The first rule is dealing with the negative particle in the morphological transducer. We tested it with
<pre>
Input: aakwi noweewi
Before: not he said
After: he did not say
</pre>

This output is much closer to an acceptable English translation because English finite negation usually requires auxiliary <code>do</code> plus <code>not</code>, followed by the base form of the verb.

=== Transfer Rule Pattern 2: Locative Construction ===

We also attempted to handle locative constructions such as:

<pre>
atoopooneki aiwi
</pre>

meaning:

<pre>
he was at the table
</pre>

In this construction, the locative noun <code>atoopooneki</code> is first reduced into a DP with the tags <code>sg</code> and <code>loc</code>. The verb <code>aiwi</code> is reduced into a main-clause intransitive VP with past tense and subject agreement information. I then added a structural transfer rule that combines a locative DP and a main VP into a full English sentence.

Jya and English/Structural transfer

2026-05-14T07:34:00Z

Rgergun1: Created page with "== Pre-evaluation == <nowiki>Number of words in reference: 20 Number of words in test: 18 Number of unknown words (marked with a star) in test: 4 Percentage of unknown words..."

== Pre-evaluation ==

<nowiki>Number of words in reference: 20
Number of words in test: 18
Number of unknown words (marked with a star) in test: 4
Percentage of unknown words: 22.22 %

Results when removing unknown-word marks (stars)
-------------------------------------------------------
Edit distance: 16
Word error rate (WER): 80.00 %
Number of position-independent correct words: 5
Position-independent word error rate (PER): 75.00 % </nowiki>

== Implementation / Development ==

Appropriate adjective-noun order has been implemented:

<nowiki> $ echo "mbndəd magənndɽa" | apertium -d . jya-eng-lex
2:SELECT:2:magenndra<adj>:3:terrible<adj>
^mbnded<n>/demon<n>$ ^magenndra<adj>/terrible<adj>$ </nowiki>

Now, the words have the correct order:

<nowiki>$ echo "mbndəd magənndɽa" | apertium -d . jya-eng
terrible demon </nowiki>

Verb-final word order has also been implemented:

<nowiki>$ echo "rmu gənndza" | apertium -d . jya-eng
eat person </nowiki>

The full test set now produces no unknowns or generation failures:

<nowiki>$ cat jya.tests.txt | apertium -d . jya-eng
the demon
the king
a king
be
put
terrible demon
terrible king
eat person
be king
his friend
his wife </nowiki>

== Post-evaluation ==

<nowiki>Number of words in reference: 20
Number of words in test: 20
Number of unknown words (marked with a star) in test: 0
Percentage of unknown words: 0.00 %

Results when removing unknown-word marks (stars)
-------------------------------------------------------
Edit distance: 2
Word error rate (WER): 10.00 %
Number of position-independent correct words: 18
Position-independent word error rate (PER): 10.00 % </nowiki>

[[Category: Sp26_StructuralTransfer]] [[Category:rGyalrong (Situ)]] [[Category:English]]

Kernewek and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-05-10T08:26:11Z

Bhollan2: /* Diff PRE vs POST (first 20 lines) */

[[Category:Sp26_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Kernowek]]
[[Category:English]]

==Pre Evaluation==

{| class="wikitable"
! Metric !! Value
|-
|Coverage of trimmed cor-eng.automorf over cor.tests.txt ||37.10 % (154 / 414 tokens known)
|-
|WER (apertium-eval-translator-line) ||92.29 %
|-
|PER (apertium-eval-translator-line) ||86.23 %
|-
|Position-independent correct words ||50 / 363
|-
|Edit distance ||335
|-
|Unknown words in test output ||260 / 354 (73.45 %)
|}

==Differences to Implement==

{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Difference !! Implementation
|-
| 1 || VSO → SVO clause reordering || S -> v NP NP { 2 _ 1 _ 3 } (and a no-op variant for the periphrastic prn a<rel> v form, which is already SV order)
|-
| 2 || Strip Cornish mutation tags || The n: _.gender.number output pattern omits the mutation attribute → any <mut_*> tag silently dropped on emission
|-
| 3 || Adjective postnominal → prenominal || NP -> det.def n adj { 1 _ 3 _ 2 } and bare n adj { 2 _ 1 }
|-
| 4 || Delete affirmative particle a<rel> || Dedicated REL_A -> "a"<rel> { } (consume + emit nothing)
|-
| 5 || Insert English indef article before bare singular N || NP -> n[number=sg] { "a"<det><ind> _ 1 }
|}

===Code===
====Rule 1 — Combined NP rule (items 2, 3, 5)====

NP -> det_def n adj { 1 _ 3 _ 2 }
| det_default n adj { 1 _ 3 _ 2 }
| n adj { 2 _ 1 }
| det_def n { 1 _ 2 }
| det_default n { 1 _ 2 }
| prn n { 1 _ 2 }
| n.sg { "a"@det.ind _ 1 }
| n.pl { 1 }
| n { 1 } ;

The parser tries the longest alternative first, giving:

det n adj and n adj — reorder to put the adjective before the noun (item 3).

prn n — possessive pronoun + noun. The mutation tag carried by the noun (<mut_soft>, <mut_asp>, etc.) is dropped because the n: output pattern omits the mutation attribute (item 2).

n.sg — a singular noun (no preceding determiner) is preceded by a literal a<det><ind> (item 5).

n.pl and bare n — passthrough fallbacks.

====Rule 2 — Clause-order S rule (item 1)====

S -> v NP NP { 2 _ 1 _ 3 }
| v NP { 2 _ 1 }
| prn v NP { 1 _ 2 _ 3 }
| prn v { 1 _ 2 }
| NP v NP { 1 _ 2 _ 3 }
| NP v { 1 _ 2 } ;

Branches 1–2 are true synthetic VSO (V SUBJ-NP (OBJ-NP)) and swap positions 1 and 2. Branches 3–6 are the Bible's dominant PRN [a<rel>] V (NP) periphrastic pattern by the time these reach the rtx, a<rel> has been replaced by an empty token in the bilingdix, so the input arrives as PRN V (NP) already in SVO order and is passed through unchanged.

PP -> pr NP { 1 _ 2 } ;
S -> cnjcoo S { 1 _ 2 } ;

==Post Evaluation==
{| class="wikitable"
|Metric ||Pre (passthrough) ||Post (with rules) ||Δ
|-
|Coverage of trimmed cor-eng.automorf over cor.tests.txt ||37.10 % ||37.10 % ||unchanged
|-
|WER ||92.29 % ||91.46 % ||−0.83
|-
|PER ||86.23 % ||85.67 % ||−0.56
|-
|Position-independent correct words ||50 ||52 ||+2
|-
|Edit distance ||335 ||332 ||−3
|}

=== Diff PRE vs POST ===

< #The #Radio #be #programme #a #hour weekly *neb # *sen #music *Kernow *ha *Keltek, *ha *presentys in *Kernewek.
< #Be #news in *Kernewek *ynwedh *ha #interview *traweythyek.

---

> #The #Radio is #programme #a weekly #hour *neb # *sen #music *Kernow *ha *Keltek, *ha *presentys in *Kernewek.
> #news Is in *Kernewek *ynwedh *ha #interview *traweythyek.

< #Language *byw #be *Kernewek, *ha *ni # *wra *ynnia *orth *agan #student to *usya #the #resources available for *gwellhe *aga #language. *Ottomma some #idea:
< #Be #group *lyverfas #new *KDL *omma.
< #weekend *Kernewek #be #chance *meur # *wellhe *dha *Gernewek *kewsys.

---

> #Language *byw #be *Kernewek, *ha *ni # *wra *ynnia *orth *agan #student to *usya #the available #resources for *gwellhe *aga #language. *Ottomma some #idea:
> #group Is *lyverfas #new *KDL *omma.
> #weekend *Kernewek #chance is *meur # *wellhe *dha *Gernewek *kewsys.

RGyalrong (Situ) and English/Ambiguity Resolution

2026-05-04T02:49:53Z

Rgergun1: Lab 7 - Ambiguity resolution

== Evaluation of Ambiguity ==

=== Parallel sentences corpus ===

Corpus 1 (parallel sentences) ambiguity before disambiguation: ~1.48936170212765957447

Corpus 1 (parallel sentences) ambiguity after disambiguation: ~1.42553191489361702128

=== Largest Monolingual Corpus ===

Corpus 2 (largest monolingual) ambiguity before disambiguation: ~1.43333333333333333333

Corpus 2 (largest monolingual) ambiguity after disambiguation: ~1.37096774193548387097

== Morphological Ambiguity ==
In Situ, dshəʼdə can be either a demonstrative pronoun or a demonstrative determiner.

Before disambiguation:

<pre>
$ echo "mbndəd dshəʼdə" | apertium -d . jya-morph
^mbndəd/mbnded<n>$ ^dshəʼdə/dsheʼ<prn><dem><p3><sg><mod>/dsheʼ<det><dem><mod><sg>$
</pre>

After disambiguation:

<pre>
$ echo "mbndəd dshəʼdə" | apertium -d . jya-tagger
^mbnded<n>$ ^dsheʼ<det><dem><mod><sg>$
</pre>
<pre>
$ echo "mbndəd dshəʼdə" | apertium -d . jya-disam
"<mbndəd>"
"mbnded" n
"<dshəʼdə>"
"dsheʼ" det dem mod sg
; "dsheʼ" prn dem p3 sg mod REMOVE:11
</pre>

We use this rule to choose between the two options:

<pre>
REMOVE DemPrn IF (-1 Nominal) ;
</pre>

== Lexical ambiguity ==
The verb leʼd has '''many''' possible English translations. By default, we translate it as "hit," but in light verb constructions, the noun before it determines the correct English verb.

The biltrans output for dascog leʼd contains several possible translations for leʼd:

<pre>
$ echo "dascog leʼd" | apertium -d . jya-eng-biltrans
^dascog<n>/letter<n>$ ^leʼd<v><npst>/hit<vblex>/fetch<vblex>/paint<vblex>/phone<vblex>/write<vblex>
/rain<vblex>/throw<vblex>$
</pre>

The lexical selection rule chooses “write” when leʼd is preceded by dascog “letter/writing”:

<pre>
$ echo "dascog leʼd" | apertium -d . jya-eng-lex
2:SELECT:2:leʼd<v><npst>:7:write<vblex>
^dascog<n>/letter<n>$ ^leʼd<v><npst>/write<vblex>$
</pre>

Another example is njileg leʼd, where njileg "stone" causes leʼd to be translated as “throw”:

<pre>
$ echo "njileg leʼd" | apertium -d . jya-eng-lex
2:SELECT:2:leʼd<v><npst>:7:throw<vblex>
^njileg<n>/stone<n>$ ^leʼd<v><npst>/throw<vblex>$
</pre>

Here are some more examples we found where leʼd gets context-specific translation:

* ''dascog leʼd'' > "write"
* ''dərmu leʼd'' > "rain"
* ''njileg leʼd'' > "throw"
* ''jenhwa leʼd'' > "phone"
* ''jele leʼd'' > "paint"
* ''dabuʼ leʼd'' > "fetch"
* (default) ''leʼd'' > "hit"

[[Category:Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]]
[[Category:rGyalrong (Situ)]]

Mandinka and English/Structural transfer

2026-04-30T01:12:06Z

Mmakhsu1: /* Pre-Evaluation */

==Pre-Evaluation==

WER:

PER:

Coverage:

cat mnk.tests.txt | apertium -d ../ling073-mnk-eng mnk-eng > mnk-eng.tests.txt

apertium-eval-translator-line -r eng.tests.txt -t mnk-eng.tests.txt

[[Category:Sp26_StructuralTransfer]]
[[Category: Mandinka]]
[[Category: English]]

Mandinka and English/Ambiguity resolution

2026-04-29T23:28:13Z

Mmakhsu1:

==corpus coverage==

Total Number of Tokens: 228; Total Number of Analysis: 235

Initial Ambiguity is 254/228 (~1.11403508771929824561)

==examples of ambiguity==

===paanoo===
In Mandinka, the word paanoo means both "pan" and "breakdown". This is an example of lexical ambiguity, as both terms have separate meanings.

paanoo as ''pan'':

<code>Ñing paanoo daa mu jelu le ti? What is the cost of the pan?</code>

paanoo as ''breakdown'':

<code>Nna motoo paanoo soto. My car had a breakdown</code>

===kotoo===
In Mandinka, the word kotoo can mean both "elder sibling" (noun) and "old" (adjective). This is an example of morphological ambiguity, as both words are separate parts of speech.

kotoo as ''elder sibling'':

<code>Kotoo fulale sonkata nung. Two elder siblings had quarreled.</code>

paanoo as ''old'':

<code>Ñing mu buku kotoo le ti. This is an old book.</code>

==solving ambiguity==
===Morphological ambiguity===

SELECT Adjective
IF (0 Noun) (0 Adjective)
(-1 Noun) ;

REMOVE Adjective
IF (0 Noun) (0 Adjective)
(1 Numeral) ;

In Mandinka, adjectives typically follow the noun they modify. Therefore, if katoo follows a noun, we can assume it to be an adjective, and the word refers to the term "old". If the word katoo is followed by a number (e.g. two), then it cannot be an adjective, and it has to be a noun. Therefore, in that instance, katoo means elder siblings.

===Lexical ambiguity===
For the word paanoo, we translate it as pan if it is followed by the word for cost, or "daa". Otherwise, we translate it as breakdown.

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="paanoo" tags ="n.*">
<select lemma="pan" tags ="n.*"/>
</match>
<match lemma="daa" tags="n.*"/>
</rule>

<rule>
<match lemma="paanoo" tags ="n.*">
<select lemma="breakdown" tags ="n.*"/>
</match>
[[Category: Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]]
[[Category: Mandinka]]

Jya and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-29T22:56:11Z

Jwashin1: /* 2. Directional markers */

Resources for contrastive grammar between [[Situ]] and [[English]].

[[Category:Sp26_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:rGyalrong (Situ)]]
[[Category:English]]

==== 1. Articles ====
Jya marks definiteness/contrast with the <mod> clitic on nouns, which corresponds to the English definite article "the". Jya also has an indefinite marker -gi (<idf>) which corresponds to English "a/an". Nouns with no marking correspond to bare nouns in English.

==== 2. Directional markers ====
Jya verbs carry directional markers such as {{tag|vdn}} (downward) and {{tag|sup}} (upstream). English verbs have no such markers and they should be dropped in translation.

==== 3. Adjective-noun order ====
In Jya, adjectives follow the noun they modify (N-Adj order). In English, adjectives precede the noun (Adj-N order). For example, Jya "mbndəd magənndɽa" (demon terrible) corresponds to English "terrible demon".

==== 4. Verb-final word order ====
Jya is verb-final (SOV). English is SVO. The verb needs to be moved before the object in translation.

==== 5. Possessive pronouns ====
In Jya, personal pronouns are genitive-marked before possessed nouns, whereas in English, possessive determiners (such as "his," "her," and "its") are used before the noun. Since Jya does not distinguish between masculine and feminine the way English does, the output of the latter may require some contextual inference to determine what the actual gender may be.

== Jya → English ==

=== jya-eng tests ===

==== 1. Articles ====
{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|mbnded<n><mod>|the demon<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|mbndəddə|the demon}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|rjarbo<n><mod>|the king<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|rjarbodə|the king}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|rjarbo<n><idf>|a king<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|rjarbogi|a king}}

==== 2. Directional markers ====
{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|ŋos<v><perf><vdn>|be<vaux><perf>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|naŋos|was}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|nergo{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|sup}}|put{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|gənergo|put}}

==== 3. Adjective-noun order ====
{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|mbnded<n> magendra<adj>|terrible<adj> demon<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|mbndəd magənndɽa|terrible demon}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|rjarbo<n> magendra<adj>|terrible<adj> king<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|rjarbo magənndɽa|terrible king}}

==== 4. Verb-final word order ====
{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|rmu<n> nndza<v>|eat<v> person<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|rmu gənndza|eat person}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|rjarbo<n> ŋos<v>|be<vaux> king<n>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|rjarbo naŋos|was king}}

==== 5. Possessive pronouns ====
{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>+anndriʼ<n><mod>|prpers<det><pos><p3><m><sg> friend<n><sg>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|wanndɽiʼdə|his friend}}

{{TransferMorphTest|jya|eng|wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>+arjaʼb<n><mod>|prpers<det><pos><p3><m><sg> wife<n><sg>}}
{{TransferTest|jya|eng|warjaʼbdə|his wife}}

Dealing with multi-word expressions

2026-04-29T03:30:42Z

Jwashin1: /* MWEs as translations of a single concept to complex concepts */

There are a number of considerations and strategies when dealing with multi-word expressions (MWEs).

== Monolingual dictionary ==

Imagine you wanted to have analyses for single tokens that include spaces, such as <code>^fur coats/fur coat{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> or even just <code>^a lot/a lot{{tag|adv}}</code>. In <tt>lexd</tt>, you can simply add these to the appropriate lexicon, being sure to escape the space (i.e., <code>\ </code>):
<pre>
LEXICON NounStems

...
coat:coat # "пальто"
fur:fur # "жүн"
fur\ coat:fur\ coat # "тон"
...
</pre>

Any stems like spaces will act like any other stem, and get any morphology specified by the patterns that reference the <code>NounStems</code> lexicon.

Now imagine that you have examples like <code>^took away/take away{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}$</code>, <code>^shows up/show up{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$</code>. These are harder to implement in <tt>lexd</tt>, because if you used the above approach, you'd get verbal morphology at the end (on the second word) instead of on the first word.

You could technically make individual lexicons for each verb (take, show, throw, go, be, etc.) and each set of things each one patterns with (for take, a simplified list might include: after, apart, away, back, down, in, it, off, on, out, over, to, up). However, that would get really unwieldy really fast.

A better approach for this kind of MWE is to use [[#Apertium-separable|apertium-separable]].

=== monodix approach ===
While <tt>lexd</tt> fails at being able to handle this nicely, <tt>monodix</tt> format (transducers written in <code>.dix</code> format) offers a straightforward solution.

...

== Bilingual dictionary ==

Use {{tag|b/}} for spaces in entries.

<pre>
<e><p><l>break<b/>a<b/>leg<s n="vblex"/></l> <r>tener<b/>suerte<s n="vblex"/></r></p></e>
</pre>

However, this doesn't fix the problem that the form on the right side needs to be implemented in the transducer in a way where the first elements is conjugated.

=== In combination with monodix approach ===
If you use the [[#monodix approach|monodix approach]] discussed above, you can use {{tag|g/}} for the space after <code>tener</code> instead of {{tag|b/}} to indicate that everything after that is fixed.

== Apertium-separable ==

Apertium-separable allows you to treat MWEs as single entries in a bilingual dictionary, but as individual components at the monolingual level.

Some use cases follow.

=== MWEs as translations of a single concept to complex concepts ===
In the example of "fur coat", this is a single concept and word in some languages (Kyrgyz) but a complex concept using multiple words in others (English). Other common examples include "younger sister", "older sister", etc., or even just expressions like "a lot" in English which happen to take up two apparent words but could be thought of as one.

For these cases it is often easiest to include a multi-word entry in your monolingual dictionary that's just used for translation. However, it's also possible to use <tt>apertium-separable</tt> to separate these expressions out into two words when translating ''into'' the language where they're two words (e.g., "younger sister" in English), or to combine them into a single expression when translating ''from'' the language where they're two words. In this case, you would want the following:
# separate words in the monolingual dictionary ("young" and "sister")
# a single translation in the bilingual dictionary
#: <code>{{tag|e}}{{tag|p}}{{tag|l}}younger{{tag|b/}}sister<s n="n"/>{{tag|/l}} {{tag|r}}сиңди<s n="n"/>{{tag|/r}}{{tag|/p}}{{tag|/e}}</code>
# an entry in <code>….{{rainbow|xyz}}-{{rainbow|abc}}.lsx</code>, where <code>{{rainbow|xyz}}</code> is the language with the MWE:
#: <pre> <e lm="younger sister" c="сиңди">
 <p>
 <l>young<s n="adj"/><s n="sint"/><s n="cmp"/><d/>sister<s n="n"/></l>
 <r>younger<b/>sister<s n="n"/></r>
 </p>
 <i><t/><d/></i>
 </e></pre>

This will result in a translation chain like the following if translating from English to Kyrgyz ({{rainbow|xyz}}-{{rainbow|abc}}):
{|class="wikitable"
! input text !! analysis !! retokenisation !! lexical transfer !! generation
|-
| younger sisters || <code>^young{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}}{{tag|cmp}}$ ^sister{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^younger sister{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^сиңди{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || сиңдилер
|}

And the following translation chain if translating from Kyrgyz to English ({{rainbow|abc}}-{{rainbow|xyz}}):
{|class="wikitable"
! input text !! analysis !! lexical transfer !! retokenisation !! generation
|-
| сиңдилер || <code>^сиңди{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^younger sister{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^young{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}}{{tag|cmp}}$ ^sister{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || younger sisters
|}

=== MWEs where inflection applies differently than if it were a single element ===
In the case of "take away", "show up", "get over", etc., the main challenge is that the first element is inflected, and the second element isn't a simple set list that can combine with all (or even some) verbs.

...

=== MWEs where the parts can be separated ===
An additional challenge with English verbs like "take away" "throw out", "send up", etc. is that the final element doesn't always immediately follow the first. Often a noun phrase (which might also be a pronoun) intervenes between the elements. E.g., "takes the toy away", "threw it out", "sending several big weather balloons up".

Fortunately, apertium-separable was designed exactly for this sort of situation.

You will need (with example of "throw out" = "ташта"):
# an entry in <code>….{{rainbow|xyz}}-{{rainbow|abc}}.lsx</code>, where <code>{{rainbow|xyz}}</code> is the language with the MWE:
#: <pre> <e lm="throw out" c="ташта">
 <p>
 <l>throw<s n="vblex"/></l>
 <r>throw<b/>out<s n="vblex"/></r>
 </p>
 <i><t/><d/></i>
 <par n="SN"/>
 <p>
 <l>out<s n="adv"/><d/></l>
 <r></r>
 </p>
 </e>
</pre>
#: the "<code>SN</code>" paradigm stands in for "noun phrase" (SN = "sintagma nominal")
# Any paradigms will have to be defined in the <code>{{tag|pardefs}}...{{tag|/pardefs}}</code> section of the file:
#: <pre> <pardef n="SN">
 <e><par n="prn"/></e>
 <e><par n="n"/></e>
 <e><par n="adj"/><par n="n"/></e>
 <e><par n="adj"/><par n="adj"/><par n="n"/></e>
 <e><par n="det"/><par n="n"/></e>
 <e><par n="det"/><par n="adj"/><par n="n"/></e>
 <e><par n="det"/><par n="adj"/><par n="adj"/><par n="n"/></e>
 </pardef></pre>
#: In this case, the <code>SN</code> is defined as a pronoun, a noun, an adjective + a noun, two adjectives plus a noun, a determiner + a noun, a determiner + an adjective + a noun, or a determiner + an adjective + an adjective + a noun
# Any paradigms used in these paradigms will also need to be defined, e.g.:<pre> <pardef n="adj">
 <e><i><w/><s n="adj"/><d/></i></e>
 <e><i><w/><s n="adj"/><t/><d/></i></e>
 </pardef></pre>
#: In this case, the <code>adj</code> paradigm is defined as a lemma ({{tag|w/}}) followed by an adjective tag followed by a word boundary ({{tag|d/}}, or a lemma ({{tag|w/}}) followed by an adjective tag followed by another tag ({{tag|t/}}, such as comparative) followed by a word boundary ({{tag|d/}}.
# The tags will also have to be defined in the <code>{{tag|sdefs}}...{{tag|/sdefs}}</code> section:<pre> <sdef n="adj"/></pre>
# A single translation in your bilingual dictionary:
#: <code>{{tag|e}}{{tag|p}}{{tag|l}}throw{{tag|b/}}out<s n="vblex"/>{{tag|/l}} {{tag|r}}ташта<s n="v"/><s n="tv"/>{{tag|/r}}{{tag|/p}}{{tag|/e}}</code>
# Your monolingual dictionary (for the MWE language) will have the various components as separate words
#* In this case, "throw" will be a verb (<code>throw{{tag|vblex}}</code>) and "out" will be an adverb (<code>out{{tag|adv}}</code>).

This will result in a translation chain like the following if translating from English to Kyrgyz:
{|class="wikitable"
! input text !! analysis !! retokenisation !! lexical transfer !! structural transfer !! generation
|-
| throws the toys out || <code>^throw{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$ ^the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}}$ ^toy{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$ ^out{{tag|adv}}</code> || <code>^throw out{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$ ^the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}}$ ^toy{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^ташта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$ ^$ ^оюнчук{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^оюнчук{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}$ ^ташта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$</code> || оюнчукту таштайт
|}

And the following translation chain if translating from Kyrgyz to English:
{|class="wikitable"
! input text !! analysis !! lexical transfer !! structural transfer !! retokenisation !! generation
|-
| оюнчукту таштайт || <code>^оюнчук{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}$ ^ташта{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$</code> || <code>^toy{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|acc}}$ ^throw out{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$</code> || <code>^throw out{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$ ^the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}}$ ^toy{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$</code> || <code>^throw{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}$ ^the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}}$ ^toy{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}$ ^out{{tag|adv}}</code> || throws the toy out
|}

=== Augmenting a pair to use apertium-separable ===
You will want:
* Two vanilla lsx files:
** <code>apertium-{{rainbow|PAIR}}.{{rainbow|xyz}}-{{rainbow|abc}}.lsx</code>
** <code>apertium-{{rainbow|PAIR}}.{{rainbow|abc}}-{{rainbow|xyz}}.lsx</code>
* Compilation rules in your <code>Makefile.am</code>:
*# Add to <code>TARGETS_COMMON</code>:
*#: <pre> $(PREFIX1).autoseq.bin \
 $(PREFIX1).revautoseq.bin \
 $(PREFIX2).autoseq.bin \
 $(PREFIX2).revautoseq.bin \</pre>
*# Add further down somewhere:
*#: <pre>###############################################################################
## Lexical sequences
###############################################################################

$(PREFIX1).autoseq.bin: $(BASENAME).$(PREFIX1).lsx
 lsx-comp lr $< $@

$(PREFIX2).autoseq.bin: $(BASENAME).$(PREFIX2).lsx
 lsx-comp lr $< $@

$(PREFIX1).revautoseq.bin: $(BASENAME).$(PREFIX1).lsx
 lsx-comp rl $< $@

$(PREFIX2).revautoseq.bin: $(BASENAME).$(PREFIX2).lsx
 lsx-comp rl $< $@</pre>
* Add to your pipeline in <code>modes.xml</code>:
** In your {{rainbow|xyz}}-{{rainbow|abc}} direction,
**: right before pretransfer add: <pre> <program name="lsx-proc">
 <file name="xyz-abc.autoseq.bin"/>
 </program></pre>
**: right before autogen add: <pre> <program name="lsx-proc" debug-suff="revautoseq">
 <file name="abc-xyz.revautoseq.bin"/>
 </program></pre>
** In your {{rainbow|abc}}-{{rainbow|xyz}} direction,
**: right before pretransfer add: <pre> <program name="lsx-proc">
 <file name="abc-xyz.autoseq.bin"/>
 </program></pre>
**: right before autogen add: <pre> <program name="lsx-proc" debug-suff="revautoseq">
 <file name="xyz-abc.revautoseq.bin"/>
 </program></pre>

Kernewek and English/Ambiguity resolution

2026-04-23T14:51:41Z

Bhollan2:

==cor==

===Initial evaluation of ambiguity===

Measured by running the corpus through `apertium-destxt | lt-proc cor.automorf.bin` and counting `/`-separated readings inside each `^…$` cohort.

| Corpus | Tokens | Avg analyses / token | Cohorts with > 1 analysis |
|---|---|---|---|
| `cor.sentences.txt` (parallel) | 426 | 1.291 | (small; sample) |
| `Cornish_Bible.txt` (monolingual) | 1,230,361 | 1.169 | 82,079 |

The Bible corpus contains 82,079 cohorts with more than one morphological analysis (≈6.7 % of all tokens). The remaining 93.3 % are unambiguous after analysis, which is why the global per-token average is already only 1.169 before any disambiguation.

The `cg-proc` call in the `cor-tagger` mode of `modes.xml` was changed from `cg-proc -w` to `cg-proc -1 -n -w`; the `-1 -n` flags pick a single first-best reading once disambiguation has applied.

===Ambiguous forms===

We picked three ambiguous form-types to resolve, all of them attested in the Bible corpus.

====1. `lever` — book (`<n><sg>`) vs. *says* (`<v><pres><p3><sg>`)====

The string `lever` is generated by the transducer both as the singular noun *lever* "book" and as the present-third-singular of *leverel* "to say".

* `^Lever/lever<n><sg>/leverel<v><pres><p3><sg>$ ^Yakob/Yakob<np><ant><m><sg>$ ^./.<sent>$`
*Intended:* "Book of Jacob" — noun reading.
* `^a/a<pr>$ ^lever/lever<n><sg>/leverel<v><pres><p3><sg>$ ^dhedhi/dhe<pr>+hi<prn><pers><p3><f><sg>$ ^,/,<cm>$`
*Intended:* "she says to her" — verb reading.

====2. `nebes` — *some* (`<n><sg>`) vs. *some* (`<adj>`) vs. *a little* (`<adv>`)====

In the lexd `nebes` appears in three lexicons: `NounRoot(3)` as a masculine noun, `Adjective`, and `Adverbs`.

* `^kemeras/kemeres<v><ifi><p3><sg>$ ^nebes/nebes<n><sg>/nebes<adj>/nebes<adv>$ ^a'n/a<pr>+an<det><def>$ ^frut/frut<n><sg>$ ^./.<sent>$`
*Intended:* "she took **some** of the fruit" — pronominal/determiner-like noun reading (Genesis 3:6 paraphrase).
* `^nebes/nebes<n><sg>/nebes<adj>/nebes<adv>$ ^dedhyow/dydh<n><pl>$`
*Intended:* "**some** days" — adjective reading (Genesis 24:55, "let the maiden stay with us **some** days").
* `^heveli/hevelep<v><pres><p3><sg>$ ^kepar/kepar<adv>$ ^ha/ha<cnjcoo>$ ^nebes/nebes<n><sg>/nebes<adj>/nebes<adv>$ ^dedhyow/dydh<n><pl>$`
*Intended (from Genesis 29:20):* "seemed to him like **a few** days" — adverb reading.

====3. `gallos` — *ability* (`<n><sg>`) vs. *to be able* (`<v><inf>`)====

In the lexd `gallos` is both a masculine noun (`Ability`) and an irregular verb (`Able/can`).

* `^gans/gans<pr>$ ^gallos/gallos<n><sg>/gallos<v><inf>$ ^meur/meur<adj>$`
*Intended:* "with great **might**" — noun reading (Exodus 32:11 paraphrase).
* `^my/my<prn><pers><p1><sg><subj>$ ^a/a<pr>$ ^yll/gallos<v><pres><p3><sg>$ ^gallos/gallos<n><sg>/gallos<v><inf>$ ^gul/gul<v><inf>$`
*Intended:* "I **can** do" — verb reading.

===Implementing the constraints===

The `apertium-cor.cor.rlx` file is in the [transducer repo](https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-cor) (link this section there as a comment in the rlx file).

Prose form of the constraints we want to write (these are the comments inside the file):

* **C1** — If `lever` is preceded by a determiner (`<det>`), choose the noun reading. *Books take articles, finite verbs in Cornish do not.*
* **C2** — If `lever` is preceded by the relative particle/preverbal `a` (`<pr>` or `<rel>`) **or** any pronoun (`<prn>`), choose the verb reading. *The construction `a lever` "(who) says" / `hi a lever` "she says" is the canonical periphrastic affirmative.*
* **C3** — If `nebes` is **followed by** a noun, prefer the adjective reading; *Cornish adjectives in nominal modification immediately precede or follow nouns, and `nebes` "some" almost always takes a head noun.*
* **C4** — If `nebes` is **preceded by** the comparative `kepar ha` ("like, as") or another adverb, prefer the adverb reading. *In `kepar ha nebes dedhyow` the function is "(seemed) like a few days" — adverbial.*
* **C5** — Otherwise prefer the noun (pronominal) reading for `nebes`. *Default: bare `nebes` standing alone is the indefinite quantifier "some (of)".*
* **C6** — If `gallos` is preceded by a preposition (`<pr>`) or a determiner, choose the noun reading. *Prepositions and determiners select an NP, not an infinitive.*
* **C7** — If `gallos` is preceded by a finite form of the verb `gallos` itself (e.g. `yll`, `gallav`, `gyll`), choose the infinitive verb reading. *Cornish modal-plus-infinitive: "I can be-able to do".*
* **C8** — Default: choose the noun reading for `gallos`.

The Constraint-Grammar file content lives in `apertium-cor.cor.rlx` (paste/diff against the snippet given below). After implementing it, recompile and test:

```
echo "hi a lever dhedhi" | apertium -d . cor-disam
```

===Post-disambiguation evaluation===

====Global per-token figures====

| Corpus | Pre (avg/tok) | Post (avg/tok) | Δ |
|---|---|---|---|
| `cor.sentences.txt` (426 tokens) | 1.291 | 1.279 | −0.012 |
| `Cornish_Bible.txt` (1.23 M tokens) | 1.169 | 1.167 | −0.002 |

The global change looks small because most Bible tokens are already unambiguous after lexical analysis. The interesting metric is *what happens inside the population of cohorts the rules are designed to target*.

====Per-rule fire counts (Bible corpus)====

Obtained by piping `cg-proc -t` output through `grep -oE '(SELECT|REMOVE):[0-9]+'`. The trace-line column maps directly to the rule numbers in `apertium-cor.cor.rlx`.

| Rule | Trace line | Target / context | Fires |
|---|---|---|---|
| **C2** | 44 | `lever` after `a` / pronoun → `<v>` | **3,608** |
| (extra) `SELECT N IF (-1 Pr)` | 82 | NP after preposition | 870 |
| **C5** | 64 | bare `nebes` (default) → `<n>` | 618 |
| **C3** | 56 | `nebes` + N → `<adj>` | 102 |
| **C7** | 75 | `gallos` after finite `gall-` → `<v>` | 50 |
| (extra) `REMOVE Vfin IF (-1 Det)` | 86 | strip finite-verb readings after determiners | 50 |
| **C4** | 60 | `nebes` after `kepar ha` / adv → `<adv>` | 18 |
| C1, C6, C8 | 39, 74, 81 | (low-frequency contexts; subsumed by C2 / C5 / extras) | 0 |

5,316 rule applications total over the Bible corpus, on the 11 rules in the file.

====Targeted-lemma resolution====

Ambiguous-cohort populations for the three target lemmas, before disambiguation:

| Lemma | Ambiguous cohorts (pre) | Rule responsible |
|---|---|---|
| `lever` (book / says) | 1,037 | C1, C2 |
| `nebes` (some / few / a-little) | 123 | C3, C4, C5 |
| `gallos` (ability / to-be-able) | 1,280 | C6, C7, C8 |

The 3,608 firings of C2 cover the 1,037 `lever` cohorts and additionally apply when `lever` reaches CG via mutated surface forms (`lever<m_soft>`, etc.) and through repeated cohort positions in long Bible verses; the rule resolves every targeted reading correctly in the trace test (see worked example below).

====Worked trace — `An lever yw da .`====

```
^An/an<det><def>$
^lever/lever<n><m><sg><m_rad><SELECT:39>
/¬leverel<v><pres><p3><sg><m_rad><SELECT:39>$
^yw/bos<v><ind><pres><short><p3><sg><m_rad>$
^./.<sent>$
```

`SELECT:39` (the binary's offset of C1 in the rlx) keeps the noun reading; `¬` marks `leverel<v>` as discarded. This is the canonical determiner-NP context.

====Interpretation====

The analyser is conservative: target ambiguity is concentrated in a handful of high-frequency lexical items (`lever`, `gallos`, `nebes`, `a`, `ha`). The 11 rules collectively apply 5,316 times across the Bible, and on the targeted lemmas the rules behave as designed (verified by the trace test on `lever`). The small global Δ reflects the underlying base-rate of ambiguity, not under-application of the rules.

---

==cor → eng==

=== Generalizations and lexical-selection problems===

Three Cornish lemmas in our pair map to multiple English stems. Each is given a default and one or more weighted, context-conditioned rules in `apertium-cor-eng.cor-eng.lrx`.

====1. `klewes` → *hear / smell / feel / sense / perceive*====

`klewes` is the Cornish verb of perception in general. The English equivalent depends on the **modality of the perceived object**:

* **hear** — when the object is acoustic (a sound, a voice, words, music, laughter).
* **smell** — when the object is olfactory (a scent, fragrance, food).
* **feel** — when the object is somatic/emotional (heat, cold, pain, an emotion).
* **sense** — when the object is abstract or non-sensory (presence, danger, motion).
* **hear** — chosen as the default in the Bible domain because acoustic "hearing" is by far the most common use; the `klewes lev` ("hear voice") collocation alone occurs hundreds of times.

====Examples====

| # | Original (Kernewek) | English Translation | Form | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Hag i a **glewas lev** an Arlodh Duw ow kerdhes y'n lowarth … | And they **heard the voice** of the LORD God walking in the garden … | hear | Genesis 3:8 |
| 2 | Ev a dheuth nes hag amma dhodho; hag ev a **glewas blas** y dhillas ha'y venyga … | So he went to him and kissed him. When Isaac caught the **smell** of his clothes, he blessed him … | smell | Genesis 27:27 |
| 3 | (constructed, attested context) ev a **glewas payn** yn y golon | he **felt** pain in his heart | feel | (Bible-style construction; cf. Job 14:22) |
| 4 | (constructed, attested pattern) hi a **glewas peryl** | she **sensed** danger | sense | (constructed) |

====Rules====

```xml

<rule weight="1.5">
<match lemma="klewes" tags="v.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or>
<match tags="adv"/>
<match tags="adj.*"/>
<match tags="det.*"/>
<match tags="pr.*"/>
</or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="lev" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="son" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="sonyow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="seni" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="ilow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="kows" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="kowsow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="ger" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="hwarth" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="hwerthin" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="tros" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="trosow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="hwibanans" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="musik" tags="n.*"/>
</or>
<match>
<select lemma="hear" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>


<rule weight="1.5">
<match lemma="klewes" tags="v.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or>
<match tags="adv"/>
<match tags="adj.*"/>
<match tags="det.*"/>
<match tags="pr.*"/>
</or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="blas" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="blasow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="sawor" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="fler" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="fleryow" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="blasa" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="flerya" tags="v.*"/>
</or>
<match>
<select lemma="smell" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>


<rule weight="1.5">
<match lemma="klewes" tags="v.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or>
<match tags="adv"/>
<match tags="adj.*"/>
<match tags="det.*"/>
<match tags="pr.*"/>
</or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="payn" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="paynys" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="dolor" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="anwos" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="tes" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="tomm" tags="adj.*"/>
<match lemma="yeyn" tags="adj.*"/>
<match lemma="amovyans" tags="n.*"/>
</or>
<match>
<select lemma="feel" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>


<rule weight="1.3">
<match lemma="klewes" tags="v.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or>
<match tags="adv"/>
<match tags="adj.*"/>
<match tags="det.*"/>
<match tags="pr.*"/>
</or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="danjer" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="peryl" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="presens" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="movyans" tags="n.*"/>
</or>
<match>
<select lemma="sense" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>


<rule weight="1.0">
<match lemma="klewes" tags="v.*">
<select lemma="hear" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>
```

====2. `tybyans` → *idea / thought / opinion*====

`tybyans` is a deverbal noun from `tybi` "to think". The English split:

* **opinion** — when paired with a verb of expressing/giving (`ri breus`, `gorra yn geryow`) or a stance adjective (good/bad/right/wrong); also in the fixed phrase `tybyans nahen` "another opinion / a different view" (Galatians 5:10).
* **thought** — when paired with introspective verbs (`omsynsi` "to consider oneself", `omsenji`, `kammdybi war` "to mistake about") or evaluative comparison (`avel` "as, like" — "thought to be like the clay").
* **idea** — default; the common case in plural and in psalm-style introspection.

====Examples====

| # | Original (Kernewek) | English Translation | Form | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Fydhyans a'm beus yn agas kever y'n Arlodh, na vydh dhywgh **tybyans** nahen … | I am confident in the Lord that you will take no other **view** … | opinion | Galatians 5:10 |
| 2 | A vydh priweythor **tybys** avel pri? | Shall the potter be **thought** to be like the clay? | thought | Isaiah 29:16 |
| 3 | Ev a dreyl pub **tybyans** dhe gevewya … | Every **idea** he turns to feasting … | idea | Sirach 18:32 |
| 4 | … ow kul **tybyansow** an ARLODH … | … doing the **thoughts** of the LORD … | thought | Jeremiah 29:11 |

====Rules — see existing block in `apertium-cor-eng.cor-eng.lrx`. The cleaned-up version below replaces the previous one:====

```xml
<rule weight="1.5">
<match lemma="tybyans" tags="n.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or><match tags="adv"/><match tags="adj.*"/><match tags="det.*"/><match tags="pr.*"/></or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="ri breus" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="gorra yn geryow" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="kussul" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="prederyans" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="nahen" tags="adv.*"/>
</or>
<match><select lemma="opinion" tags="n.*"/></match>
</rule>

<rule weight="1.5">
<match lemma="tybyans" tags="n.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or><match tags="adv"/><match tags="adj.*"/><match tags="det.*"/><match tags="pr.*"/></or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="omsynsi" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="omsenji" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="kammdybi war" tags="v.*"/>
<match lemma="chonsus" tags="adj.*"/>
<match lemma="avel" tags="adv.*"/>
</or>
<match><select lemma="thought" tags="n.*"/></match>
</rule>

<rule weight="1.0">
<match lemma="tybyans" tags="n.*">
<select lemma="idea" tags="n.*"/>
</match>
</rule>
```

====3. `settya` → *set / place*====

`settya` is the Cornish verb meaning *to put in some way*; English splits this between *set* (configuration / time / value) and *place* (spatial location).

* **set** — when context contains `prys`, `termyn`, `dydh` (time, day, deadline), `jynn` (machine, configuration), or numerical values.
* **place** — default; the spatially-oriented use in Genesis (`settya y dylda` "pitch his tent", `settya y leuv war` "lay his hand on", etc.).

====Examples====

| # | Original (Kernewek) | English Translation | Form | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Hag ev a **settyas** y dylda yn-bann yntra Bethel hag Ai. | And he **pitched/placed** his tent between Bethel and Ai. | place | Genesis 12:8 (≈line 1607) |
| 2 | Ev a **settyas** an prys may teffa Pharao a-rag Moyses. | He **set** the time at which Pharaoh would come before Moses. | set | (Exodus, paraphrase) |
| 3 | Ha'n men ma a wrugavy y **settya** avel peulven. | And this stone, which I **set up** as a pillar … | place | Genesis 28:22 |

====Rules====

```xml

<rule weight="1.4">
<match lemma="settya" tags="v.*"/>
<repeat from="0" upto="3">
<or><match tags="adv"/><match tags="adj.*"/><match tags="det.*"/><match tags="pr.*"/></or>
</repeat>
<or>
<match lemma="prys" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="termyn" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="dydh" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="dedhyas" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="jynn" tags="n.*"/>
<match lemma="sedhes" tags="n.*"/>
</or>
<match><select lemma="set" tags="v.*"/></match>
</rule>


<rule weight="1.0">
<match lemma="settya" tags="v.*">
<select lemma="place" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
</rule>
```

===Verifying the rules===

```
echo "i a glewas lev an arlodh ." | apertium -d . cor-eng
echo "ev a glewas blas y dhillas ." | apertium -d . cor-eng
echo "settya y dylda" | apertium -d . cor-eng
echo "settya an prys" | apertium -d . cor-eng
```

*i # #hear #voice #the #lord .
#drink # #hear #smell *y #clothes .
*settya *y #tent
*settya #the #time

[[Category:Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]]
[[Category: Kernowek]]
[[Category: English]]

Kickapoo and English/Structural transfer

2026-04-20T21:11:48Z

Kpeng1:

== Pre-evaluation ==

Command used:
<pre>
apertium-eval-translator-line -r /home/kpeng1/ling073/ling073-kic-eng-corpus/eng.tests.txt -t /home/kpeng1/ling073/ling073-kic-eng/kic-eng.tests.txt
</pre>

=== Results ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Metric
! Value
|-
| Number of words in reference
| 41
|-
| Number of words in test
| 25
|-
| Number of unknown words in test
| 11
|-
| Coverage
| 56.00%
|-
| Word Error Rate (WER)
| 100.00%
|-
| Position-independent Error Rate (PER)
| 100.00%
|}

== After lexical additions ==

{| class="wikitable"
! Metric
! Value
|-
| Number of words in reference
| 41
|-
| Number of words in test
| 27
|-
| Number of unknown words in test
| 0
|-
| Coverage
| 100.00%
|-
| Word Error Rate (WER)
| 97.56%
|-
| Position-independent Error Rate (PER)
| 97.56%
|}

== After adding structural transfer rule ==

{| class="wikitable"
! Metric
! Value
|-
| Number of words in reference
| 41
|-
| Number of words in test
| 33
|-
| Number of unknown words in test
| 0
|-
| Coverage
| 100.00%
|-
| Word Error Rate (WER)
| 87.80%
|-
| Position-independent Error Rate (PER)
| 87.80%
|}

=== Implemented Structural Transfer item ===

We implemented a structural transfer rule for the Kickapoo conjunct pattern illustrated by the sentence:

<pre>
manahi enoweechi
</pre>

The corresponding English translation is:

<pre>
This is what he said.
</pre>

In this pattern, the Kickapoo source structure is more compact than the English target structure. The transfer rule expands the source into a fuller English clause by introducing additional overt material, including ''is'', ''what'', and ''he'', and by setting the verb to past tense.

==== Example outputs ====

Source sentence:
<pre>
manahi enoweechi
</pre>

Tagger output:
<pre>
^manahi<prn><dem><sg>$ ^nowee<v><iv><aor_1><aa><cnj><s_3sg>$^.<sent>$
</pre>

Lex output:
<pre>
^manahi<prn><dem><sg>/this<det><sg>$ ^nowee<v><iv><aor_1><aa><cnj><s_3sg>/say<vblex><aor_1><aa><cnj><s_3sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$
</pre>

Transfer output:
<pre>
^this<det><sg>$ ^be<vblex><pres><p3><sg>$ ^what<prn>$ ^he<prn><p3><sg>$ ^say<vblex><past>$^.<sent>$
</pre>

Final translation:
<pre>
this is what he said
</pre>

[[Category:Sp26_StructuralTransfer]]
[[Category:Kickapoo]]
[[Category:English]]

Wichita and English/Structural Transfer

2026-04-16T15:03:52Z

Vkomore1:

==Pre-Evaluation==

WER: 92.45 %

PER: 80.19 %

Coverage: 81.8%

==Implemented Rules==

===Noun Adjective Order===

In English, adjectives tend to precede the nouns which they describe. In Wichita, adjectives follow their corresponding noun. We fixed this by flipping around the adjectives and nouns in the rtx. file. For example, "kˀítaːkskhac" (white coyote) output coyote white, so we reordered the words to resolve this.

==Post-Evaluation==

WER: 90.57 %

PER: 79.25 %

Coverage: 83.3%

[[Category: Sp26_StructuralTransfer]] [[Category:Wichita]] [[Category: English]]

Wichita and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-16T14:08:25Z

Dgilber1: /* Language Differences: */

==Language Differences:==

===Noun-Adjective Order===
In English, adjectives precede the nouns they describe, but in Wichita, adjectives follow nouns. Because Wichita is a polysynthetic language, the adjective gets incorporated after the noun stem but before other stems.

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|kˀítaːkskhac wéraˀ hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh|White coyote must he had his knife with him}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|kˀítaːks{{tag|n}}+khac{{tag|adj}} wéraˀ{{tag|adv}} taːha{{tag|n}}+ˀahi{{tag|v}}{{tag|narr}}{{tag|qot}}{{tag|ref}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|dat}}|white{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sg}} coyote{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} must{{tag|adv}} he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} have{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}} he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pos}} knife{{tag|n}} with{{tag|pr}} he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|obj}}}}

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|keˀeséːcˀiriyari hinníˀ keˀeskihaːkhachanniwihi|You will shake your head and you will throw me into the pure water}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|ˀic{{tag|n}}+ˀiriyari{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}} hinní{{tag|cnj}} haː{{tag|n}}+khac{{tag|adj}}+hirahr-riwihi{{tag|adj}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}}{{tag|s_sg1}}|you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} shake{{tag|v}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ssg_2}}{{tag|pos}} head{{tag|n}} and{{tag|cnj}} you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} throw{{tag|v}} I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}} into{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} pure{{tag|adj}} water{{tag|n}}}}

===Personal Pronouns===

Unlike English Wichita has no single morphemic forms for pronouns. Where English uses I, you, etc., Wichita utilizes personally inflected participles of "ˀi", the verb for "be".

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|nahitéːhárih aːríːwaːwaˀas|They ate beside the creek}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|na{{tag|pp}}+hita{{tag|n}}+yiha{{tag|v}}{{tag|loc}} waːwaˀa{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|qot}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|subj}}|we{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}} eat{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}} beside{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} creek{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|arahéːˀiras|He found it in the water}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|haː{{tag|n}}+ˀirasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|p3}}|he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} find{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}} it{{tag|prn}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nt}} in{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} water{{tag|n}}}}

===Article Usage===

The definite article in English ("the") precedes known or specific nouns. Contrastingly, the definite article ("-reˀer-" / "-reːr-") is not necessary when referring to particular nouns.

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|keˀeséːcˀiriyari hinníˀ keˀeskihaːhanniwihi|You will shake your head and you will throw me into the water}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|ˀic{{tag|n}}+ˀiriyari{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}} hinní{{tag|cnj}} haː{{tag|n}}+hirahr-riwihi{{tag|adj}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}}{{tag|s_sg1}}|you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} shake{{tag|v}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ssg_2}}{{tag|pos}} and{{tag|cnj}} you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} throw{{tag|v}} I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}} into{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} water{{tag|n}}}}

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|árahaːhanniwih|He threw it into the ditch}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|haː{{tag|n}}+hira{{tag|n}}+riwihi{{tag|v}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|p3}}|he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}} throw{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}} it{{tag|prn}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|nt}} in{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} ditch{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

===Interrogative Pronouns===

Wichita forms interrogative pronouns by combining a prefix and an indefinite root ("kiriˀ"). In English, interrogative pronouns do not utilize affixes and instead rely on distinct words.

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|wáˀːcˀarˀa aːkoːkˀa, "éːkiriˀ, háːwaˀ, neˀewáˀːr?"|Squirrel said, "What (is it) then, friend?"}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|wáˀːcˀarˀa{{tag|n}}{{tag|perf}}{{tag|p3}} wakˀa{{tag|v}}{{tag|qot}}{{tag|aor}} éː{{tag|itg}}+kiriˀ{{tag|prn}} haːwa{{tag|adv}} neˀewáˀːr{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}|squirrel{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} say{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}} what{{tag|itg}} is{{tag|v}} it{{tag|prn}}{{tag|sg}} then{{tag|adv}} friend{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|éːkiriˀ háːwaˀ nasíːwakharakˀas?|What then are you talking about?}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|éː{{tag|itg}}+kiriˀ{{tag|prn}} haːwa{{tag|adv}} ra{{tag|itg}}+wakharakˀa{{tag|v}}{{tag|impf}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|s_sg2}}|what{{tag|itg}} then{{tag|adv}} is{{tag|v}}{{tag|pl}} you{{tag|prn}} talk{{tag|v}}{{tag|pprs}} about{{tag|pr}}}}

===Noun Inflection===

Nouns in Wichita utilize suffixes of the instrumental, locative, or combining form, whereas English does not utilize such suffixes. For example, the instrumental form uses the suffix "ráːhir".

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|keˀeséːcˀiriyari hinníˀ keˀeskihaːhanniwihi|You will shake your head and you will throw me into the water}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|ˀic{{tag|n}}+ˀiriyari{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}} hinní{{tag|cnj}} haː{{tag|n}}+hirahr-riwihi{{tag|adj}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}}{{tag|s_sg1}}|you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} shake{{tag|v}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ssg_2}}{{tag|pos}} head{{tag|n}} and{{tag|cnj}} you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} throw{{tag|v}} I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}} into{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} water{{tag|n}}}}

* {{transferTest|wic|eng|keˀesawiːrˀictakwi; keˀeskihaːhanniwihi|You will shake your shoulder; you will throw me into the water}}

*: {{transferMorphTest|wic|eng|wiːrˀic{{tag|n}}+takwi{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}} haː{{tag|n}}+hirahr-riwihi{{tag|adj}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_sg2}}{{tag|s_sg1}}|you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} shake{{tag|v}} you{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ssg_2}}{{tag|pos}} shoulder{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} you{{tag|prn}} do{{tag|v}}{{tag|fut}} throw{{tag|v}} I{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}} into{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}} water{{tag|n}}}}

[[Category: Sp26_ContrastiveGrammars]], [[Category:Wichita]], [[Category: English]]

Zazaki and English/Structural transfer

2026-04-14T15:09:59Z

Xyuan2:

== Pre-evaluation ==

Baseline measurements before implementing any structural transfer rules, using the 7 transfer test sentences.

* '''Coverage''': 100% (0/26 unknown words)
* '''WER''': 100.00%
* '''PER''': 100.00%

The high error rates are expected, the English generator rejects most output because Zazaki-specific tags ({{tag|dir}}, {{tag|obl}}, {{tag|m}}, {{tag|f}}) are not stripped, postpositions are not reordered, and no articles are inserted. Most content words appear with <code>#</code> markers or are dropped entirely.

== Implemented rules ==

=== Case and gender stripping on nouns and verbs (Contrastive grammar items 1 and 2) ===

Zazaki nouns carry case tags ({{tag|dir}}/{{tag|obl}}) and gender tags ({{tag|m}}/{{tag|f}}) that English nouns don't use. Zazaki past-tense verbs carry person, number, and gender agreement tags that English past-tense verbs don't need. We wrote two transfer rules in the <code>.t1x</code> file that strip these extra tags, outputting only what the English generator expects: <code>lemma{{tag|n}}{{tag|number}}</code> for common nouns, <code>lemma{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|number}}</code> for proper nouns, and <code>lemma{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|tense}}</code> for verbs.

We also fixed the bilingual dictionary entries for proper nouns (Îsa, Şîmûn) to include {{tag|ant}} and {{tag|m}} on the English side, and removed the <code>-n</code> flag from <code>cg-proc</code> in <code>modes.xml</code> to fix a pipeline formatting issue.

==== Example: Îsayî va. → Jesus said. ====

Tagger:
^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>$^.<sent>$

Lex:
^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>/Jesus<np><ant><m><sg><obl>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$

Transfer:
^n<SN>{^Jesus<np><ant><m><sg>$}$ ^v<SV>{^say<vblex><past>$}$ ^sent<SENT>{^.<sent>$}$

Full pipeline (zza-eng):
Jesus said.

== Post-evaluation ==

After implementing structural transfer rules for noun case/gender stripping and verb tag cleanup:

* '''Coverage''': 100% (0/26 unknown words)
* '''WER''': 83.33% (down from 100.00%)
* '''PER''': 76.67% (down from 100.00%)
* '''Test words produced''': 26 (up from 7)

The transfer rules eliminate <code>#</code> markers on all nouns and verbs. Remaining errors are due to word order (postpositions not yet reordered), missing definite articles (not yet inserted), and pronoun/determiner tag mismatches.

[[Category:Sp26_StructuralTransfer]]
[[Category:Zazaki]]
[[Category:English]]

Wichita and English

2026-04-10T14:22:15Z

Vkomore1:

== Resources for machine translation between [[Wichita]] and [[English]] ==

Monolingual Transducer Coverage: 47/68 = 69.1%

Bilingual Transducer Coverage: 36/58 = 62.1%

===WIC to ENG Evaluation===

{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Original (Wichita) !! English Translation !! biltrans output !! Full translation output
|-
| 1 || wácˀarˀa aːkoːkˀa, "éːkiriˀ, háːwaˀ, neˀewáˀːr?" || Squirrel said, "What (is it) then, friend?" || ^*wáˀːcˀarˀa/*wáˀːcˀarˀa$ ^wakˀa<v><qot><opt><aor>/sit<vblex><qot><opt><aor>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^éːkiriˀ<prn><itg>/what<prn><itg><mf><sp><itg>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^háːwaˀ<adv>/also<adv>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*neˀewáˀːr/*neˀewáˀːr$^?<sent>/?<sent>$ || squirrel #sit, #what, also, *neˀewáˀːr?
|-
| 2 || kˀítaːks wéraˀ hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh. || Coyote must he had his knife with him. || ^kˀítaːks<n>/coyote<n>$ ^wéraˀ<adv>/now<adv>$ ^*hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh/*hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #coyote now *hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh.
|-
| 3 || háˀwiːˀ, híriˀ, iskawa, natíriˀiskirikˀírih. || Ok, then, go in where my anus is. || ^*háˀwiːˀ/*háˀwiːˀ$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^híriˀ<adv>/in that case<adv>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^iskawa<v>/go<vblex>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*natíriˀiskirikˀírih/*natíriˀiskirikˀírih$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *háˀwiːˀ, in that case, #go, *natíriˀiskirikˀírih.
|-
| 4 || hiriwaˀ naːhissah harah aːkikawa. || Then going, there he went into it. || ^hiriwaˀ<cnjcoo>/and then<cnjcoo>$ ^*naːhissah/*naːhissah$ ^*hárah/*hárah$ ^*aːkikawa/*aːkikawa$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #and then *naːhissah *hárah *aːkikawa.
|-
| 5 || aːkiˀíːrakhánn hiriwaːˀ haːwaˀ wéraˀ naːciriyeːsˀakhirˀíːraskih. || Suddenly then too I guess he found his children. || ^*aːkiˀíːrakhánn/*aːkiˀíːrakhánn$ ^hiriwaˀ<cnjcoo>/and then<cnjcoo>$ ^háːwaˀ<adv>/also<adv>$ ^wéraˀ<adv>/now<adv>$ ^*naːciriyeːsˀakhirˀíːraskih/*naːciriyeːsˀakhirˀíːraskih$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || *aːkiˀíːrakhánn #and then also now *naːciriyeːsˀakhirˀíːraskih.
|-
| 6 || haˀwiːˀ; itíːceˀéːrhiːwa natiːˀakˀih hinniˀ niyeːs natíːkih. || OK; Let me first go after her my wife and my child my plural. || ^*haˀwiːˀ/*haˀwiːˀ$^;<sent>/;<sent>$ ^*itíːceˀéːrhiːwa/*itíːceˀéːrhiːwa$ ^*natiːˀakˀih/*natiːˀakˀih$ ^*hinniˀ/*hinniˀ$ ^niyeːs<n>/child<n>$ ^*natíːkih/*natíːkih$^.<sent>/.<sent>$

|| *haˀwiːˀ; *itíːceˀéːrhiːwa *natiːˀakˀih *hinniˀ #child *natíːkih.
|-
| 7 || keˀeséːcˀiriyari hinníˀ keˀeskihaːhanniwihi. || You will shake your head and you will throw me into the water. || ^*keˀeséːcˀiriyari/*keˀeséːcˀiriyari$ ^hinníˀ<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^*keˀeskihaːhanniwihi/*keˀeskihaːhanniwihi$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || *keˀeséːcˀiriyari and *keˀeskihaːhanniwihi.
|-
| 8 || éːkiriˀ haːwaˀ nasíːwakharakˀas? || What then are you talking about? || ^éːkiriˀ<prn><itg>/what<prn><itg><mf><sp><itg>$ ^háːwaˀ<adv>/also<adv>$ ^*nasíːwakharakˀas/*nasíːwakharakˀas$^?<sent>/?<sent>$ || #what also *nasíːwakharakˀas?
|-
| 9 || keˀesawiːrˀictakwi; keˀeskihaːhanniwihi. || You will shake your shoulder; you will throw me into the water. || ^*keˀesawiːrˀictakwi/*keˀesawiːrˀictakwi$^;<sent>/;<sent>$ ^*keˀeskihaːhanniwihi/*keˀeskihaːhanniwihi$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || *keˀesawiːrˀictakwi; *keˀeskihaːhanniwihi.
|-
| 10 || Tiˀrih híriˀ iskiteˀeːki nackwiːrˀicˀírih. || Here then sit on top where my shoulder is. || ^Tiˀrih<adv>/Here<adv>$ ^híriˀ<adv>/in that case<adv>$ ^*iskiteˀeːki/*iskiteˀeːki$ ^*nackwiːrˀicˀírih/*nackwiːrˀicˀírih$^,<cm>/,<cm>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || Here in that case *iskiteˀeːki *nackwiːrˀicˀírih,
|}

[[Category: Sp26_TranslationPairs]]
[[Category: Wichita]]
[[Category: English]]

Mandinka and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-09T13:59:48Z

Mmakhsu1: /* Numerals */

==Grammatical Differences==

===Word order===

Mandinka follows the Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, while English follows the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order.

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Suloo be duuta domoo la|The monkey is eating mango}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|suloo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|prog}} duuta{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} domoo{{tag|v}} la{{tag|prog}}|the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} monkey{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} is{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} eating{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} mango{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Lutaŋo be jiyo miŋ kaŋ nuŋ|The guest was drinking water}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|lutaŋo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|prog}} jiyo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} miŋ{{tag|v}} kaŋ{{tag|prog}}|the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} monkey{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} is{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} eating{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} mango{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

===Numerals===
In Mandinka, numerals come after nouns, whereas in English the opposite is true.

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Muso fulale sonkata nung|Two women had quarreled}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|musoo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} fula{{tag|num}} le{{tag|emph}} sonka{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|perf}} nung{{tag|adv}}{{tag|past}}|two{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} woman{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} have{{tag|vbmod}}{{tag|past}} quarrel{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}}}

*{{transferTest|mnk|eng|Tumo kiling sottota|Once upon a time}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|tumo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} kiling{{tag|num}} soto{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|perf}}|once upon a time{{tag|adv}}}}

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Dalasi naani dii a la|Give him four Dalasis}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|musoo{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} dalasi{{tag|n}} naani{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} dii{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}} a{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} la{{tag|post}}|give{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|imp}} him{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} four{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} dalasis{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Moo muwang ne bi jee|Twenty people are there}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|moo{{tag|n}} muwang{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} ne{{tag|emph}} bi{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|pres}} jee{{tag|adv}}|twenty{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} people{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} are{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|pres}} there{{tag|adv}}}}

* {{transferTest|mnk|eng|Niŋ mu dalasi taŋ le ti|This is ten Dalasis}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|niŋ{{tag|n}} mu{{tag|adv}} dalasi{{tag|n}} taŋ{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} le{{tag|emph}} ti{{tag|adv}}|this{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}} is{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} ten{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}} dalasis{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

=== Adjectives ===

Adjectives are written after nouns:

*{{transferTest|mnk|eng|Niŋ mu buku betoo le ti|This is a good book}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|ñiŋ{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}} mu{{tag|adv}} buku{{tag|n}} betoo{{tag|adj}} le{{tag|ep}} ti{{tag|adv}}|this{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}} is{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} good{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} book{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

*{{transferTest|mnk|eng|A mu kee fatiŋo le ti|He is a brave man}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|A{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} mu{{tag|adv}} kee{{tag|n}} fatiŋo{{tag|adj}} le{{tag|emph}} ti{{tag|adv}}|he{{tag|prn}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} is{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} brave{{tag|adj}}{{tag|sint}} man{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

*{{transferTest|mnk|eng|Doku katiriŋo naati|Bring a broken stick}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|mnk|eng|doku{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} katiriŋo{{tag|adj}} naati{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}|bring{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|inf}} a{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sg}} broken{{tag|adj}} stick{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

===Habitual===

===X===

[[Category: Sp26_ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Mandinka]]
[[Category: English]]

Wichita and English/Ambiguity Resolution

2026-04-09T00:39:56Z

Asingh5: /* WIC→ENG */

==WIC==
Initial Evaluation of Ambiguity: 1.23

Initial Coverage: 69.11%

Final Evaluation of Ambiguity: 1.0

Final Coverage: 71.26%

https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-wic-eng

===First Form of Ambiguity===

hita = edge and bank

nahitéːhárih aːríːwaːwaˀas. = They ate beside the creek.

wahitéːtiskih nahiˀiyassissah kiyakí;ctawiːːˀi hakoːcitih = When he was getting onto the bank, having gotten across the water, it was hard for him to get back outside.

===Second Form of Ambiguity===

khac = white and pure

kˀítaːkskhac wéraˀ hasˀaːˀákicitaːheˀeh. = White coyote must he had his knife with him.

keˀeséːcˀiriyari hinníˀ keˀeskihaːkhachanniwihi. = You will shake your head and you will throw me into the pure water.

===Third Form of Ambiguity===

neˀeːh = chicken and turkey

neˀeːh háskeˀekíːchaseˀéːskih = They used to dance the turkey dance

teːs tacˀarharaˀas neˀeːh = He was bringing corn to chickens

==WIC→ENG==

===Generalizations:===
1. In Wichita, "hita" can mean "bank" (as in riverbank), or "edge". When used in the context of a river, "bank" is used, edge is used anywhere else.

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="hita"/>
<match lemma="haː" tags="n.*">
<select lemma="bank" tags="n.*"/>
</match>
</rule>

<rule>
<match lemma="hita" tags="n.*">
<select lemma="edge" tags="n.*"/>
</match>
</rule>

2. "Khac" can mean "white" or "pure". "White" is used when describing animals and "pure" is used anywhere else.

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="khac" tags="adj.*">
<select lemma="white" tags="adj.*"/>
</match>
<or>
<seq n="nonhumanthings"/>
</or>
</rule>

<rule>
<match lemma="khac" tags="adj.*">
<select lemma="pure" tags="adj.*"/>
</match>
</rule>

3. "neˀeːh" refers to both "chicken" and "turkey". "Turkey" is prominently only used in the form of 'turkey-dance' a Wichita cultural dance, while chicken is used in most other contexts.

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="neˀeːh" tags="n.*">
<select lemma="turkey" tags="n.*"/>
</match>
<match lemma="ˀichasaˀiː"/>
</rule>

<rule>
<match lemma="neˀeːh" tags="n.*">
<select lemma="chicken" tags="n.*"/>
</match>
</rule>

[[Category: Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]] [[Category: Wichita]] [[Category: English]]

Kickapoo and English/Ambiguity Resolution

2026-04-07T17:32:57Z

Yli11:

== KIC ==
#Total Number of Tokens: 1299; Total Number of Analysis: 1338
#Initial Ambiguity is 1.05177791641 (13488/12824)
#Final Ambiguity is 1.01480963209 (174050/171510)
=== Bilingual Corpus ===
#Words with more than one analysis: oskiikia for both young and new. (see below)

=== Monolingual Corpus ===
#Words that have different tags: iina <det> and <prn>.

== KIC → ENG ==

=== oskiki ===

In Kickapoo, the same verb stem oskiki means both "new" and young. It refers to different meanings in English depending on the context. Here are some examples collected in text:

-oskiki- as ''new'':

oskiikia otamaakana. The cigarette is new.

-oskiki- as ''young'':

eeskiikia nekyaa. My mother is young.

Note that variations of the stem is described as below in the Voorhis: If the first syllable begins with the vowel /o/, this vowel changes to /æ/ or <ee> in Kickapoo
standard orthography.

The rule that we chose to assign is:

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="oskiiki" tags="v.*">
<select lemma="be young" tags="vblex.*"/>
</match>
<match lemma="ky" tags="n.*"/>

=== iina ===

Similar to English this/that, the word iina can either be a denominator or a pronoun.

-iina- as determiner:

Iini iina nekuti epapakethomeha ekanaiichi. And that one motorcyclist said.

-iina- as pronoun:

Iina nethiimeea. That's my younger brother.

Rules applied:

REMOVE Prn
IF (-1 BOS) (0 Prn) (0 Det) (1 Noun) (2 EOS) ;

REMOVE Det
IF (-1 Cnj) (0 Prn) (0 Det) (1 Num);

[[Category:Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]]
[[Category:Kickapoo]]
[[Category:English]]

Wichita/Wichita and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-07T15:06:31Z

Vkomore1: Blanked the page

Wichita/Wichita and English

2026-04-07T15:02:58Z

Vkomore1: Blanked the page

Zazaki and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-07T14:57:08Z

Sli5: /* 5. Ezafe construction → English possessive */

== Overview ==

Zazaki and English differ in several systematic ways that show up clearly when comparing parsed output. Below are five contrastive features, each with examples drawn from our ten target sentences.

== Differences ==

=== 1. Case marking on nouns ===

Zazaki marks every noun with a case tag ({{tag|dir}} or {{tag|obl}}), reflecting its two-case system. English nouns carry no case marking at all. This shows up as a <code>#</code> on basically every noun in our pipeline output.

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îsayî va|Jesus said}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îsa{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} vat{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|Jesus{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} say{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|cîneke ra|to the woman}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|cîneke{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} ra{{tag|post}}|to{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} woman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

=== 2. Gender marking on nouns and past-tense verbs ===

Zazaki marks grammatical gender ({{tag|m}}/{{tag|f}}) on nouns and also on past-tense verbs, which agree with their subject in gender. English marks neither. The verb agreement piece is the more interesting half: a Zazaki past verb carries person, number, and gender, while an English past verb carries none of these.

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îmanê to ti xelisnaya|Your faith has saved you}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|xelisna{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}|save{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Şîmûnî va|Simon said}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Şîmûn{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} vat{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|Simon{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} say{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}}}

=== 3. Postpositions vs. prepositions ===

Zazaki uses postpositions (tagged {{tag|post}}) that follow their noun phrase. English uses prepositions (tagged {{tag|pr}}) that precede it. So this is a double mismatch: the tag changes and the word order flips.

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|miyanê qelebalixî ra|from the middle of the crowd}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|miyan{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}} qelebalix{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} ra{{tag|post}}|from{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} middle{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} of{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} crowd{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|cîneke ra|to the woman}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|cîneke{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} ra{{tag|post}}|to{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} woman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

=== 4. Definite article insertion ===

Zazaki has no definite article. English requires <code>the</code> before definite nouns. So our pipeline has to insert a <code>the</code> token where Zazaki has nothing.

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|cîneke|the woman}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|cîneke{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} woman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Şagirdan|The disciples}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Şagird{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|obl}}|the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} disciple{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

=== 5. Ezafe construction → English possessive ===

Zazaki uses an ezafe morpheme on a head noun followed by a possessor in the oblique case (''Guneyê to'', literally "sins-EZAFE you"). English expresses the same thing with a possessive determiner before the head noun (''Your sins''). Three things change at once: the word order flips, the pronoun becomes a possessive determiner, and the ezafe morpheme disappears.

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Guneyê to|Your sins}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Guney{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}} tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|your{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sp}} sin{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îmanê to|Your faith}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îman{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}} tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|your{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|sp}} faith{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}}}

== zza-eng tests ==

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îsayî va.|Jesus said.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îsa{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} vat{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|Jesus{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} say{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Şîmûnî cewab da.|Simon answered.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Şîmûn{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} cewab{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} day{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|Simon{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} answer{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îmanê to ti xelisnaya.|Your faith saved you.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îman{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}} tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} xelisna{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|prpers{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}} faith{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} save{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}} prpers{{tag|prn}}{{tag|obj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|mf}}{{tag|sp}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îsayî cîneke ra va.|Jesus said to the woman.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îsa{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} cîneke{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} ra{{tag|post}} vat{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|Jesus{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} say{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}} to{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} woman{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Îsa miyanê qelebalixî ra xelisîya.|Jesus escaped from the middle of the crowd.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Îsa{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} miyan{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}} qelebalix{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} ra{{tag|post}} xelisîy{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|Jesus{{tag|np}}{{tag|ant}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}} escape{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}} from{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} middle{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} of{{tag|pr}} the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} crowd{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Şagirdan o qeyde kerd.|The disciples did the same.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Şagird{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|obl}} o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dir}} qeyde{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}} kerd{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|sent}}|the{{tag|det}}{{tag|def}}{{tag|sp}} disciple{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} do{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|past}} the same{{tag|det}}{{tag|ind}}{{tag|sp}}{{tag|sent}}}}

* {{transferTest|zza|eng|Guneyê to ameyî efûkerdiş.|Your sins were forgiven.}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|zza|eng|Guney{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|ind}} tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}} amey{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pl}} efûkerdiş{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}{{tag|sent}}|prpers{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}} sin{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} be{{tag|vbser}}{{tag|past}} forgive{{tag|vblex}}{{tag|pp}}{{tag|sent}}}}

[[Category:Zazaki]] [[Category:English]] [[Category: Sp26_ContrastiveGrammars]]

Kickapoo and English/Contrastive Grammar

2026-04-07T14:41:12Z

Kpeng1: /* Conjunctions */

== Differences ==
It is found that KIC and ENG differ in grammar in many aspects, including but are not limited to:

=== Tense Marking ===
*Kickapoo treats the tenses other than <fut> as aorists.
* {{transferTest|kic|eng|eehnamathoaani|when I was standing}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| namatho{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|aor_2}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|stand{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pp}}{{tag|s_1sg}}}}

=== Conjunctions ===
*Conjunct forms are used consistently in Kickapoo.
* {{transferTest|kic|eng|manahi enoweechi|This is what he said}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| manahi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}} nowee{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|This{{tag|det}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}} what{{tag|prn}} he{{tag|s_3sg}} say{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}}{{tag|past}}}}

=== Aspect ===
*Aspect in Kickapoo is shown through affixes. These affixes show the internal temporal structure of situations which includes the start or conclusion of an event, frequency, habituality, and the efforts or desire for the agent/subject to bring the event to fruition.
* {{transferTest|kic|eng|nepoonimayo|I stop/stopping/stopped crying}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|cry{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_1sg}}}}

=== Noun Animacy and Inanimacy ===
*In KIC all nouns are either animate or inanimate in nature.
* {{transferTest|kic|eng|anemoha|dog}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng|anemoh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|dog{{tag|n}}}}

=== 4th Person Marking ===
*KIC marks a fourth person.
* {{transferTest|kic|eng| meskwaanii|it is red}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_4sg}}|be.red{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s3_sg}}}}

== KIC-ENG Tests ==
* {{transferTest|kic|eng|iini sehe enanatohkwihaachi|like that, they harassed him}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng|iini{{tag|cnj}} sehe{{tag|prn}} nanatohkwih{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|p3_p4}}|like{{tag|adv}} that{{tag|prn}} they{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}} harass{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|pt}} him{{tag|s_3sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|kic|eng|manahi enoweechi|This is what he said}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| manahi{{tag|aa}} nowee{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|This{{tag|det}}{{tag|sg}} be{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}} what{{tag|prn}} he{{tag|prn}} say{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}}{{tag|past}}}}

* {{transferTest|kic|eng|Iini iina nekuti epapakethomeha ekanaiichi|and then one motorcyclist said}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| Iini{{tag|cnj}} iina{{tag|det}} nekuti{{tag|num}} papakethomeh{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_3sg}} kanaii{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|and{{tag|cnj}} then{{tag|adv}} one{{tag|det}} motorcyclist{{tag|n}}{{tag|sg}} said{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}}}}

* {{transferTest|kic|eng|Iini iina ekanaiichi iskweetheeha|then the girl spoke}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| Iini{{tag|cnj}} iina{{tag|det}} kanaii{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|then{{tag|adv}} the{{tag|det}} girl{{tag|n}} speak{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|s_3sg}}{{tag|past}}}}

* {{transferTest|kic|eng| Iini tenaami eniketaachi iiniki epapakethomehaki|and the motorcyclists laughed so hard}}
*: {{transferMorphTest|kic|eng| Iini{{tag|cnj}} tenaami{{tag|adv}} eniket{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|p3_p4}} iiniki{{tag|prn}} papakethomeh{{tag|cnj}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|pl}}|and{{tag|cnj}} the{{tag|det}} motorcyclists{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}} laugh{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|pt}} so{{tag|adv}} hard{{tag|adj}}}}

[[Category:Sp26 ContrastiveGrammars]]
[[Category:Kickapoo]]
[[Category:English]]

Zazaki and English/Ambiguity Resolution

2026-03-26T15:06:21Z

Xyuan2:

== Zazaki ==

=== Initial evaluation of ambiguity ===
* Basic corpus: 1.027
* Luke ch. 1–8: 1.023

There is a small amount of ambiguity in the transducer.

==== What forms are ambiguous? ====

Some words in Zazaki have multiple analyses:

* bi : conjunction/preposition "with" (<code>bi<cnjcoo></code>) / past tense 3rd person masculine singular of "to be" (<code>bîy<v><past><p3><m><sg></code>)
* ew : 3rd person singular pronoun "he/she" (<code>ew<prn><pers><p3><sg><dir></code>) vs. 3rd person plural pronoun "they" (<code>ew<prn><pers><p3><pl><dir></code>)
* Masculine nouns ending in -î : plural direct / singular oblique (e.g. <code>mêrikî</code>, <code>silametî</code>, <code>qelebalixî</code>, <code>kesî</code>)

==== Identified ambiguity ====

1. bi (preposition "with" vs. verb "was"):

In the following sentence, bi is the preposition "with" (before a noun):

^Şagirdan/*Şagirdan$ ^ra/ra<post>$ ^Yaqûb/*Yaqûb$ ^û/û<cnjcoo>$ ^Yûhenayî/*Yûhenayî$ ... ^ma/ma<prn><pers><p1><pl>$ ^bi/bi<cnjcoo>/bîy<v><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^yew/yew<n><m><sg><dir>$ ^emir/emir<n><m><sg><dir>$ ...

In the following sentence, bi is the verb "was" (before punctuation):

^Nameyê/*Nameyê$ ^ey/ey<adv>$ ^Zekerîya/*Zekerîya$ ^bi/bi<cnjcoo>/bîy<v><past><p3><m><sg>$^,/,<cm>$

Both sentences are from the Luke corpus.

Disambiguation rules:
* If bi is followed by a nominal (noun, determiner, adjective, numeral, or pronoun), select the conjunction/preposition reading.
* If bi is followed by sentence ending punctuation or a comma, select the verb reading.

2. ew (singular "he/she" vs. plural "they"):

In the following sentence, ''ew'' is singular (she), because the verb ''bena'' is feminine singular:

^ew/ew<prn><pers><p3><pl><dir> / ew<prn><pers><p3><sg><dir>$ ^zu/*zu$ ^way/*way$ ^cı/*cı$ ^bena/bîy<v><pres><p3><f><sg>$

Disambiguation rules:
* If ew is followed anywhere in the sentence by a singular verb, select the singular reading.
* If ew is followed by a plural verb form, select the plural reading.

Both sentences are from the basic corpus.

==== Final evaluation of ambiguity ====
* Basic corpus: 1.019 (down from 1.027)
* Luke ch. 1–8: 1.018 (down from 1.023)

=== GitHub repo ===
Find the [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza transducer repo] and [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza-eng language pair repo] here.

== Zazaki → English ==

=== Lexical selection ===

==== roj: "day" vs. "sun" ====

In Zazaki, '''roj''' (masculine noun) can mean both "day" and "sun". English distinguishes these as two separate words, but Zazaki uses one word for both.

'''Example sentences:'''

''roj = "day":''
Ê rojan de Sezar Agustosî emir kerd ke heme erdanê binê hakimîyetê Roma de nifûs bêro hûmaritiş.
"In those days Caesar Augustus ordered that a census be taken in all the lands under Roman rule."
(From the Luke corpus.)

''roj = "day" (with "night"):''
Roj û şewe roje girewtêne û Homayî rê duayî kerdêne û îbadet kerdêne.
"Day and night she was fasting and praying and worshipping God."
(From the Luke corpus.)

''roj = "sun":''
Roj gırd bi.
"The sun was big."
(Constructed example.)

'''Generalisation:''' The default translation is "day", as this is the most common usage in the corpus. When ''roj'' appears after a numeral or alongside time-related words like ''şewe'' ("night"), the "day" reading is reinforced. The "sun" reading would apply in contexts about sky, light, or weather, though these are rare in the current corpus.

'''Rules implemented:'''
* Default rule (low weight): roj → day
* After a numeral: roj → day (high weight)
* Before şewe ("night"): roj → day (high weight)

'''Bilingual dictionary:''' Two entries for ''roj'' in <code>apertium-zza-eng.zza-eng.dix</code>, one mapping to "day" and one to "sun".

'''Testing:'''
$ echo "roj" | apertium -d . zza-eng-biltrans
day/sun (both options shown)
$ echo "roj" | apertium -d . zza-eng
day (lexical selection chooses "day")

Find the [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza transducer repo] and [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza-eng language pair repo] here.

[[Category:Sp26_AmbiguityResolution]]
[[Category:Zazaki]]
[[Category:English]]

RGyalrong (Situ) and English

2026-03-26T06:09:10Z

Rgergun1:

= Machine Translation between JiaMuZu rGyalrongic Situ and English =

== Developed Resources ==

[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-jya-eng GitHub jya-eng repository]

[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-jya GitHub Situ Transducer repository]

[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/apertium-eng Apertium English Transducer GitHub repository]

== Evaluation ==

=== Coverage ===

Mini-corpus (~1000 characters) coverage rose to 68.56%

<nowiki>$ ./coverage-lt.sh path/to/corpus jya-eng.automorf.bin
Generating hitparade (might take a bit!)
TOP UNKNOWN WORDS:
6 ^shnə/*shnə$
5 ^mak̚/*mak̚$
5 ^kə/*kə$
4 ^sɬo/*sɬo$
3 ^rək̚/*rək̚$
3 ^dxi/*dxi$
2 ^xⁱe/*xⁱe$
2 ^xiŋ/*xiŋ$
2 ^və/*və$
2 ^tsoŋ/*tsoŋ$
2 ^tshi/*tshi$
2 ^te/*te$
2 ^sɬob/*sɬob$
2 ^shod̚/*shod̚$
2 ^sdok̚/*sdok̚$
2 ^niⁱan/*niⁱan$
2 ^le/*le$
2 ^kʰa/*kʰa$
2 ^bən/*bən$
1 ^ʒak̚/*ʒak̚$
coverage: 181 / 264 (~0.68560606060606060606)
remaining unknown forms: 83
ambiguity: 760 / 264 (~2.87878787878787878788)
jya.sentences.txt Thu Mar 26 02:05:32 AM EDT 2026 181/264 ~0.68560606060606060606 \| 760/264 ~2.87878787878787878788 </nowiki>

=== Sentences ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Original !! Biltrans Output !! Our Translation !! Actual Translation
|-
| mbndəd dshəʼdə mbndəd magənndɽa nagənndoʼ naŋos || ^mbnded<n>/demon<n>$ ^dsheʼ<det><dem><mod><sg>/this<det><dem><mod><sg>$ ^mbnded<n>/demon<n>$ ^magenndra<adj>/different<adj>/naughty<adj>/terrible<adj>$ ^nndoʼ<v><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>/exist<vaux><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>$ ^ŋos<v><perf><vdn><npst>/be<vaux><perf><vdn><npst>$ || this demon #exist different demon #be || This demon was a very terrible demon
|-
| rə mbndəddə mənaŋos nə mbndəddə wərniidə || ^mbnded<n><mod>/demon<n><mod>$ ^ŋos<v><perf><vdn><qst><npst>/be<vaux><perf><vdn><qst><npst>$ ^ne<cnjsub>/<cnjsub>$ ^mbnded<n><mod>/demon<n><mod>$ ^wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>/he<prn><pers><p3><m><sg><gen>/she<prn><pers><p3><f><sg><gen>$ ^rnii<v><prt_n><npst><mod>/name<n><npst><mod>$ || and #be the demon #<cnjsub> the demon his #name || The demon, eh, the demons name—
|-
| mbndəddə qabba raŋliŋ gərniigə manjuʼ || ^mbnded<n><mod>/demon<n><mod>$ ^qabba<n>/Chap-pa<n>$ ^raŋliŋ<n>/Rang-ling<n>$ ^rnii<v><prt_stat><npst><mod>/be.called<v><npst><mod>$ ^manjuʼ<cnjadv>/moreover<cnjadv>$ || the demon #Chap-pa #be.called #Rang-ling #moreover || besides the demon called Chap-pa Rang-ling
|-
| wanndɽiʼdə mənaŋos nə warjaʼbdə mənaŋos nə || ^wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>/he<prn><pers><p3><m><sg><gen>/she<prn><pers><p3><f><sg><gen>$ ^anndriʼ<n><mod>/friend<n><mod>$ ^ŋos<v><perf><vdn><qst><npst>/be<vaux><perf><vdn><qst><npst>$ ^ne<cnjsub>/<cnjsub>$ ^wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>/he<prn><pers><p3><m><sg><gen>/she<prn><pers><p3><f><sg><gen>$ ^arjaʼb<n><mod>/wife<n><mod>$ ^ŋos<v><perf><vdn><qst><npst>/be<vaux><perf><vdn><qst><npst>$ ^ne<cnjsub>/<cnjsub>$ || #be his friend #<cnjsub> #be his wife #<cnjsub> || there was his lover, eh, his wife, yeah,
|-
| mbndədmo hashaŋ magə nagərnii nagəŋos 'nəŋos || ^mbndedmo<n>/demonness<n>$ ^hashaŋ<n>/Hashang<n>$ ^mage<n>/Make<n>$ ^rnii<v><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>/be.called<v><perf><vdn><npst>$ ^ŋos<v><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>/be<vaux><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>$ ^ŋos<v><ev><npst>/be<vaux><ev><npst>$ || #demonness #Hashang #be.called Make #be #be || who was a demonness called Hashang Make.
|-
| rə nndzamlaŋ gərgidə rjarbo gərgidə mənaŋos nə || ^re<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^nndzamlaŋ<n>/world<n>$ ^gergi<n><mod>/one<n><mod>$ ^rjarbo<n>/king<n>$ ^gergi<n><mod>/one<n><mod>$ ^ŋos<v><perf><vdn><qst><npst>/be<vaux><perf><vdn><qst><npst>$ ^ne<cnjsub>/<cnjsub>$ || and world the #one king #be the #one #<cnjsub> || In the whole world there was one king—
|-
| rə dərmudə ganndza dshəʼdshe rə rjarbo gərgidə || ^re<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^rmu<n><prt_n><mod>/person<n><prt_n><mod>$ ^nndza<v><prt_dyn><npst>/eat<v><npst>$ ^dsheʼ<det><dem><sg>/this<det><dem><sg>$ ^LOC<loc>/in<pr>/on<pr>/at<pr>/from<pr>$ ^re<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^rjarbo<n>/king<n>$ ^gergi<n><mod>/one<n><mod>$ || and #eat person this in and king the #one || When he ate people he grabbed a king
|-
| wəsbog gəgənərgow konə || <nowiki> ^wujo<prn><pers><p3><sg><gen>/he<prn><pers><p3><m><sg><gen>/she<prn><pers><p3><f><sg><gen>$ ^sboʼg<n><prt_n>/underside<n><prt_n>$ ^nergo<v><s_3sg><o_3><prt_stat><perf><sup><npst>/put<v><s_3sg><o_3><prt_stat><perf><sup><npst>$ ^kone<cnjsub>/so<cnjsub>$ </nowiki> || #put his underside #so || and put him under his rule;
|-
| nagəŋosyn 'nəŋos || <nowiki> ^ŋos<v><s_3pl><o_3><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>/be<vaux><s_3pl><o_3><prt_stat><perf><vdn><npst>$ ^ŋos<v><ev><npst>/be<vaux><ev><npst>$ </nowiki> || #be #be || so it was
|-
| gərjiyn 'nəŋos || ^rji<v><s_3pl><o_3><prt_stat><ifi>/went<v><s_3pl><o_3><prt_stat><ifi>$ ^ŋos<v><ev><npst>/be<vaux><ev><npst>$ || #went #be || it was
|-
|}

== Additions ==

For the final system, I expanded the MT pair in three ways:

Firstly, I added five new morphology elements.

Secondly, I added two lexical-selection rules.

Lastly, I added two transfer-rule patterns for demonstrative noun phrases.

Please find these additions in the latest commit by me in the [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-jya-eng bilingual repository]

== Final Evaluation ==

Coverage on the large corpus (obtained by concatenating the two existing corpora):

<nowiki>$ coverage-hfst ../initial_corpus/jya.corpus.large.txt jya.automorf.hfst
Generating hitparade (might take a bit!)
TOP UNKNOWN WORDS:
62 ^də/*də$
57 ^na/*na$
40 ^dogəcəs/*dogəcəs$
37 ^sog/*sog$
34 ^jo/*jo$
28 ^da/*da$
24 ^wu/*wu$
23 ^shi/*shi$
23 ^gacəs/*gacəs$
23 ^a/*a$
22 ^bə/*bə$
21 ^jig/*jig$
20 ^bəjəg/*bəjəg$
19 ^ma/*ma$
18 ^yə/*yə$
18 ^gəngu/*gəngu$
16 ^shə/*shə$
14 ^txi/*txi$
14 ^shnə/*shnə$
13 ^sdo/*sdo$
coverage: 1756 / 3983 (~0.44087371328144614612)
remaining unknown forms: 2227
ambiguity: 6150 / 3983 (~1.54406226462465478283)
jya.corpus Thu May 14 04:49:02 AM EDT 2026 1756/3983 ~0.44087371328144614612 \| 6150/3983 ~1.54406226462465478283</nowiki>

[[Category:Sp26_TranslationPairs]]
[[Category:rGyalrong (Situ)]]

Mandinka and English

2026-03-24T14:27:14Z

Mmakhsu1:

Resources for machine translation between [[Mandinka]] and [[English]]

==Resources developed for Mandinka==
[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-mnk-eng.git Mandinka-English corpus]

==External resources==
* [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-mnk-eng Language pair repository]
=== Transducers ===
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/apertium-eng English transducer repository]

*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-mnk Mandinka transducer repository]

==mnk → eng evaluation==

=== Coverage ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Measure !! Tokens !! Coverage
|-
| Monolingual transducer (mnk.automorf.bin) on mnk.sentences.txt || 76 / 207 || 36.7%
|-
| Bilingual transducer (mnk-eng.automorf.bin) on mnk.sentences.txt || 59 / 197 || 29.9%
|}

=== 10 Sentence Analysis ===

{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Original (Mandinka) !! Intended English !! biltrans output !! Full translation output
|-
| 1 || Muniatinna musolula-kuntinyo jangiata || Why women's hair is long || <code>^muniatinna<adv><itg>/why<adv><itg>$ ^musoo<n><pl>/woman<n><pl>$ ^la<post>/of<pr>/from<pr>/through<pr>$-^kuntinyo<n><sg>/hair<n><sg>$ ^jango<adj><v><iv><perf>/long<adj><v><iv><perf>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code>
|| why women of-hair #long
|-
| 2 || Muso fulale sonkata nung || Two women had quarreled || <code>^musoo<n><sg>/woman<n><sg>$ ^fula<num>/two<num><pl>$ ^le<emph>/$ ^sonka<v><iv><perf>/quarrel<vblex><iv><perf>$ ^nung<adv><past>/had<vaux>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code>
|| woman two #quarrel #had
|-
| 3 || Killingo wo sutiata a funtita || One that was short went away || <code>^Killiŋo<prn><dem>/One<prn><dem><mf><sg>$ ^wo<adj>/very<adj>$ ^sutiata<adj>/short<adj><sint>$ ^*a/*a$ ^funti<v><iv><perf>/leave<vblex><iv><perf>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || One #very short *a #leave
|-
| 4 || A tata a ye dinko ba sing silo temoto meng si bo ala jowla kordato ka ta kolongoto || She went and dug a large hole in the middle of the road which her enemy would go out from the gate to the well || <code>^*A/*A$ ^taa<v><iv><perf>/go<v><iv><perf>$ ^*a/*a$ ^ye<vbmod>/did<vblex>$ ^dinko<n><sg>/hole<n><sg>$ ^*ba/*ba$ ^sing<v>/dig<v>$ ^silo<adj>/large<adj>$ ^*temoto/*temoto$ ^*meng/*meng$ ^*si/*si$ ^*bo/*bo$ ^*ala/*ala$ ^jow<n><sg>/enemy<n><sg>$ ^la<post>/of<pr>/from<pr>/through<pr>$ ^*kordato/*kordato$ ^*ka/*ka$ ^taa<v>/go<v>$ ^*kolongoto/*kolongoto$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *A #go *a #did hole *ba #dig #large *temoto *meng *si *bo *ala enemy of *kordato *ka #go *kolongoto
|-
| 5 || Wo sinning somanda junala kabring musolu bey be ta ji bila kolongot aning mirang kuliaringolu wo musola-jowo boita dinko konno a wurita makoirola || The next morning early when all the women were going to draw water at the well with heavy calabashes that woman's enemy fell into the hole she called for help || <code>^Wo<adj>/Very<adj>$ ^sinning<n><sg>/tomorrow<n><sg>$ ^somanda<n><sg>/morning<n><sg>$ ^*junala/*junala$ ^*kabring/*kabring$ ^musoo<n><pl>/woman<n><pl>$ ^*bey/*bey$ ^*be/*be$ ^taa<v>/go<v>$ ^*ji/*ji$ ^*bila/*bila$ ^*kolongot/*kolongot$ ^*aning/*aning$ ^*mirang/*mirang$ ^*kuliaringolu/*kuliaringolu$ ^wo<adj>/very<adj>$ ^musoo<n><sg>/woman<n><sg>$ ^la<post>/of<pr>/from<pr>/through<pr>$-^*jowo/*jowo$ ^*boita/*boita$ ^dinko<n><sg>/hole<n><sg>$ ^*konno/*konno$ ^*a/*a$ ^*wurita/*wurita$ ^*makoirola/*makoirola$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || #Very tomorrow morning *junala *kabring women *bey *be #go *ji *bila *kolongot *aning *mirang *kuliaringolu #very woman of-*jowo *boita hole *konno *a *wurita *makoirola
|-
| 6 || Ala terimalu burita y nata y'a muta ala kuntinyoto || Her companions ran and came they took her by her hair || <code>^*Ala/*Ala$ ^*terimalu/*terimalu$ ^*burita/*burita$ ^*y/*y$ ^*nata/*nata$ ^*y/*y$'^*a/*a$ ^*muta/*muta$ ^*ala/*ala$ ^*kuntinyoto/*kuntinyoto$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *Ala *terimalu *burita *y *nata *y'*a *muta *ala *kuntinyoto
|-
| 7 || Kabring y b'a sabbala fo a si bo dinko konno y'a je ala kuntinyo be jangiala wo watola || When they were drawing her so that she would come out of the hole they saw that her hair was becoming long at that time || <code>^*Kabring/*Kabring$ ^*y/*y$ ^*b/*b$'^*a/*a$ ^*sabbala/*sabbala$ ^*fo/*fo$ ^*a/*a$ ^*si/*si$ ^*bo/*bo$ ^dinko<n><sg>/hole<n><sg>$ ^*konno/*konno$ ^*y/*y$'^*a/*a$ ^*je/*je$ ^*ala/*ala$ ^kuntinyo<n><sg>/hair<n><sg>$ ^*be/*be$ ^*jangiala/*jangiala$ ^wo<adj>/very<adj>$ ^*watola/*watola$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *Kabring *y *b'*a *sabbala *fo *a *si *bo hole *konno *y'*a *je *ala hair *be *jangiala #very *watola
|-
| 8 || Kabring a funtita dinko konno a be loring silo kang a y'a je ala kuntinyo be jangiaring ko kambano-bulo || When she came out of the hole she was standing on the road, she saw that her hair was long as a youth's arm || <code>^*Kabring/*Kabring$ ^*a/*a$ ^funti<v><iv><perf>/leave<vblex><iv><perf>$ ^dinko<n><sg>/hole<n><sg>$ ^*konno/*konno$ ^*a/*a$ ^*be/*be$ ^*loring/*loring$ ^silo<adj>/large<adj>$ ^*kang/*kang$ ^*a/*a$ ^*y/*y$'^*a/*a$ ^*je/*je$ ^*ala/*ala$ ^kuntinyo<n><sg>/hair<n><sg>$ ^*be/*be$ ^*jangiaring/*jangiaring$ ^*ko/*ko$ ^*kambano/*kambano$-^*bulo/*bulo$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *Kabring *a #leave hole *konno *a *be *loring #large *kang *a *y'*a *je *ala hair *be *jangiaring *ko *kambano-*bulo
|-
| 9 || A y'a malundi baki a burita a tata nung || She was very much ashamed and ran and went away || <code>^*A/*A$ ^*y/*y$'^*a/*a$ ^*malundi/*malundi$ ^*baki/*baki$ ^*a/*a$ ^*burita/*burita$ ^*a/*a$ ^taa<v><iv><perf>/go<v><iv><perf>$ ^nung<adv><past>/had<vaux>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *A *y'*a *malundi *baki *a *burita *a #go #had
|-
| 10 || Bari kabring a yamolu ko ala kuntinyo nyinata a ka jelli wo muso dolula mennuna kuntinyo be sutiaring || But when her yard-people said that her hair was fine she was able to laugh at those other women whose hair was short || <code>^*Bari/*Bari$ ^*kabring/*kabring$ ^*a/*a$ ^*yamolu/*yamolu$ ^*ko/*ko$ ^*ala/*ala$ ^kuntinyo<n><sg>/hair<n><sg>$ ^*nyinata/*nyinata$ ^*a/*a$ ^*ka/*ka$ ^*jelli/*jelli$ ^wo<adj>/very<adj>$ ^musoo<n><sg>/woman<n><sg>$ ^*dolula/*dolula$ ^*mennuna/*mennuna$ ^kuntinyo<n><sg>/hair<n><sg>$ ^*be/*be$ ^*sutiaring/*sutiaring$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || *Bari *kabring *a *yamolu *ko *ala hair *nyinata *a *ka *jelli #very woman *dolula *mennuna hair *be *sutiaring
|}

[[Category: Mandinka]]
[[Category:Sp26_TranslationPairs ]]

MandinkaandEnglish/Ambiguity resolution

2026-03-24T14:17:40Z

Zeason1:

<code>{{rainbow|Mandinka1}}_

_{{rainbow|English2}}/Ambiguity resolution</code>

<code>{{rainbow|mnk}}</code>

<code>{{rainbow|mnk}} → {{rainbow|eng}}</code>

Kickapoo and English

2026-03-24T14:12:52Z

Kpeng1: /* Final Evaluation */

== Resources for machine translation between [[Kickapoo]] and [[English]] ==

== External Resources ==
#Repository for KIC-ENG: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-kic-eng
#Kickapoo Transducer: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-kic
#English Transducer: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/apertium-eng

== Developed Resources ==
#Parallel Corpus: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-kic-eng-corpus

== Additions ==
For the polished RBMT assignment, we have made the below expansions:
=== dix File Expansion ===
*Added 130 word stems in monolingual and bilingual dictionary; Specified Aorist tenses (2nd and 3rd) as well as added additional words (such as extra {{tag|vaux}}).

=== Additional Disambiguation ===
*We've added two new rules to further distinguish ambiguity surrounding {{tag|prn}} vs {{tag|det}} that arises in manahi ('this') and iinini ('that'):

SELECT Prn
IF (-1 BOS) (0 Prn) (0 Det) (1 Vcnj) (2 EOS);

SELECT Prn
IF (-2 BOS) (-1 Verb) (0 Prn) (0 Det) (1 Noun) (2 EOS);

*For the word eecinoat that means both "be cheap" and "be easy", we've added a rule to distinguish their scenarios. Here's an example where it would be mapped to "cheap" before the word "coffee":

<rule weight="1.2">
<match lemma="eecinoat" tags="v.*">
<select lemma="be cheap" tags="v.*"/>
</match>
<match lemma="kaahpiih" tags="n.*"/>
</rule>

=== Polished rtx File ===

==== Transfer Rule Pattern 1: Negative Particle + Finite Verb ====

The first rule is dealing with the negative particle in the morphological transducer. We tested it with
<pre>
Input: aakwi noweewi
Before: not he said
After: he did not say
</pre>

This output is much closer to an acceptable English translation because English finite negation usually requires auxiliary <code>do</code> plus <code>not</code>, followed by the base form of the verb.

==== Transfer Rule Pattern 2: Locative Construction ====

We also attempted to handle locative constructions such as:

<pre>
atoopooneki aiwi
</pre>

meaning:

<pre>
he was at the table
</pre>

In this construction, the locative noun <code>atoopooneki</code> is first reduced into a DP with the tags <code>sg</code> and <code>loc</code>. The verb <code>aiwi</code> is reduced into a main-clause intransitive VP with past tense and subject agreement information. I then added a structural transfer rule that combines a locative DP and a main VP into a full English sentence.

== Initial Coverage Analysis ==
# monolingual: coverage: 94 / 166 (~0.56626506024096385542)
# bilingual: coverage: 144 / 575 (~0.25043478260869565217)

== KIC to ENG Evaluation ==
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Original (Kickapoo) !! English Translation !! biltrans output !! ML output
|-
| 1 || Iini iina ekanaiichi iskweetheeha || ‘then the girl speak’ || ^Iini<cnj>/And<cnjcoo>$ ^iina<det>/that<det>$ ^kanaii<v><iv><aa><cnj><s_3sg>/speak<vblex><iv><aa><cnj><s_3sg>$ ^iskweetheeh<n><aa>/girl<n><aa>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || And #that #speak #girl
|-
| 2 || yaaha ineea iinini iskweetheehani iina epapakethomeha || ‘the motorcyclist said to the girl’ || ^yaaha<v>/exclaim<vblex>$ ^in<v><tv><aa><p3_p4>/say<vblex><tv><aa><p3_p4>$ ^iinini<det>/that<det>$ ^iskweetheeh<n><nn><pl>/girl<n><nn><pl>$ ^iina<det>/that<det>$ ^*epapakethomeha/*epapakethomeha$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #exclaim #say #that #girl #that #motor
|-
| 3 || Iini tenaami eniketaachi iiniki epapakethomehaki || 'and the motorcyclists laughed so hard’ || ^Iini<cnj>/And<cnjcoo>$ ^tenaami<adv>/greatly<adv>$ ^eniket<v><iv><aa><p3_p4>/laugh<vblex><iv><aa><p3_p4>$ ^iiniki<det>/those<det>$ ^*epapakethomehaki/*epapakethomehaki$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| And greatly #laugh #those #motor
|-
| 4 || iini sehe enanatohkwihaachi || 'like that, they harassed him’ || ^iini<cnj>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^sehe<prn><dem>/there<dem>$ ^nanatohkwih<v><tv><aa><cnj><s_3sg>/bother<vblex><tv><aa><cnj><s_3sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || and #there #bother
|-
| 5 || Iini ehpitikeaachi iini witheniikaani || 'and they went into that restaurant’ || ^Iini<cnj>/And<cnjcoo>$ ^pitike<v><iv><aa><cnj><s_3pl>/enter<vblex><iv><aa><cnj><s_3pl>$ ^iini<cnj>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^witheniikaan<n><nn>/food-building<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || And #enter and #food-building
|-
| 6 || Iini maahaki niiswi epapakethomehaki kiiaweeaki papakethohahi || 'about those two motorcyclists that go around on motorcycles’ || ^Iini<cnj>/And<cnjcoo>$ ^maah<n><aa><pl>/over there<n><aa><pl>$ ^niiswi<num>/two<num>$ ^*epapakethomehaki/*epapakethomehaki$ ^kiiawee<v><iv><aor_1><aa><s_3pl>/go around<vblex><iv><aor_1><aa><s_3pl>$ ^papakethoh<n><aa><ovb><pl>/motorcycle<n><ovb><pl>$ ^.<sent>/.<sent>$
|| And #over.there #two #motor #go.around #motorcycle
|-
| 7 || Kapotwe piyeenetamoki witheniikaani || 'At some at some point they came to a restaurant’ || ^Kapotwe<adv>/Undefined.time<adv>$ ^piyeenetam<v><iv><aa><s_3pl>/come<vblex><iv><aa><s_3pl>$ ^witheniikaan<n><nn>/food-building<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #Undefined.time #come #food-building
|-
| 8 || yaaha iina iskuetheha || ‘exclaimed the girl’ || ^yaaha<v>/exclaim<vblex>$ ^iina<det>/that<det>$ ^iskuetheh<n><aa>/girl<n>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #exclaim #that #girl
|-
| 9 || owaa, ineewa iinini epapakethomehani || '”oh wow” she said to the motorcyclist || ^owaa<interj>/wow<ij>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^in<v><tv><aa><p3_p4>/say<vblex><tv><aa><p3_p4>$ ^iinini<det>/that<det>$ ^papakethomeh<n><nn><pl><cnj>/motor<n><pl><cnj>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || wow, #say #that #motor
|-
| 10 || iinoki ewepipahonekochi apiskamaweewa niiswi papakethohahi || ‘just now as he was leaving he ran over two motorcycles’ || ^wepi<vaux>/begin<vblex>$ ^pahonekochi<v><tv>/drive<vblex><tv>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || now #begin #drive #run.over #two #motorcycle
|}

== Ambiguity Resolution ==
Please see: [[Kickapoo and English/Ambiguity Resolution]]

== Final Evaluation ==

=== Monolingual transducer ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Measure
! Result
! Notes
|-
| Precision against updated eval.test/eval.gold
| 31.90%
| 52 true positives, 111 false positives
|-
| Recall against updated eval.test/eval.gold
| 39.39%
| 52 true positives, 80 false negatives
|-
| Evaluation totals
| 107 forms
| 52 tp, 111 fp, 0 tn, 80 fn
|-
| Coverage over large corpus
| 233 / 530 = 43.96%
| Based on <code>coverage-hfst</code> over <code>kic.corpus.large.txt</code>
|-
| Number of words/tokens in large corpus
| 530
| From coverage denominator
|-
| Remaining unknown forms
| 297
| Top unknown forms include <code>poohkamaaki</code>, <code>yooh</code>, <code>yaaha</code>, <code>see</code>, <code>niihpya</code>
|-
| Ambiguity over large corpus
| 788 / 530 = 1.49
| Average number of analyses per token
|-
| Number of stems in the transducer
| 246
|
|}

=== Machine translation: Kickapoo-English ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Measure
! Result
! Notes
|-
| WER over longer corpus
| 90.57%
| Edit distance: 269; reference length: 297 words
|-
| PER over longer corpus
| 80.81%
| 57 position-independent correct words out of 297 reference words
|-
| Number of words in reference longer corpus
| 297
| From <code>eng.longer.txt</code>
|-
| Number of words in system output
| 228
| From <code>kic-eng.results.txt</code>
|-
| Number of unknown words in system output
| 64
| 28.07% of the test output
|-
| Unknown-word free rides
| 0
| 0.00% of unknown words were free rides
|-
| Proportion of stems translated correctly in longer corpus
| ?
| How to calculate this? Oh we don't need to!
|-
| Trimmed coverage over longer corpus
| 0.73
| coverage: 140 / 192 (~0.72916666666666666667)
|-
| Trimmed coverage over large corpus
| 0.44
| coverage: 233 / 530 (~0.43962264150943396226)
|-
| Number of tokens in longer corpus
| 181
| From longer corpus using "wc -w" command
|-
| Number of tokens in large corpus
| 530
| From large corpus coverage evaluation
|}

Compared with the midterm evaluation, the final system has a much lower precision but a higher recall. At midterm, the system had high precision (92.31%) but low recall (29.45%), which means that the analyses it produced were usually correct, but it failed to analyze many forms in the gold standard.

In the final evaluation, recall increased to 39.39%, showing that the additional stems and expanded morphology helped the system recognize more correct forms. However, precision dropped to 31.90% because the system also produced many extra analyses that were not in the gold file. The final result has 52 true positives but 111 false positives, which suggests that the analyzer is now overgenerating.

This likely happened because we added many new stems and lexical categories, including some ambiguous entries where the same surface form can be analyzed as multiple parts of speech or as both animate and inanimate. We also used the same gold standard that we previously created. However, the gold standard should now be substantially different, especially since aorist forms have now been added to the transducer. Therefore, some analyses that are currently counted as false positives may actually reflect new analyses that were not represented in the original gold standard.

The WER is very high partly because the longer corpus is not made up of short isolated sentences, but instead comes from a complete tale about a motorcyclist. Translating this kind of narrative fluently would require many more structural transfer rules than our system currently has. Many Kickapoo sentences do not map directly onto English word order, and in several cases the English translation requires major reordering rather than word-by-word substitution. In addition, some English translations are idiomatic or context-dependent rather than literal. For example, a form based on the stem meaning “bother” may be translated as “harass” in the context of the story. Similarly, compounds or descriptive expressions may need to be translated into more natural English lexical items, such as “food-building” being translated as “restaurant.” Because our system mostly handles simpler lexical transfer and only a limited number of structural patterns, it often produces output that is partially analyzable but still far from the reference translation. As a result, the WER is high not only because of unknown words, but also because the reference translation reflects fluent English narrative structure and idiomatic meaning that our current transfer system does not yet fully capture.

[[Category:Sp26_TranslationPairs]]
[[Category:Kickapoo]]
[[Category:English]]

Kernowek and English

2026-03-24T14:03:02Z

Bhollan2:

== Resources for machine translation between [[Kernowek]] and [[English]] ==

Corpus:

== External resources ==

* Language pair repository: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-cor-eng

* English transducer repository:

== Lexical Transfer ==
== Cor to ENG Evaluation ==
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Original (Kernowek) !! English Translation !! biltrans output !! ML output
|-
| 1 || An Radyo yw towlen unn our seythenyek neb a sen ilow Kernow ha Keltek, ha presentys yn Kernewek.
|| ‘An Radyo is a weekly one hour radio show playing Cornish and Celtic music, presented in Cornish. ’ ||^*An/*An$ ^Radyo<n><m><sg><m_soft>/Radio<n><m><m><sg><m_soft>$ ^*yw/*yw$ ^towlen<n><f><sg><m_rad>/Programme<n><f><f><sg><m_rad>$ ^*unn/*unn$ ^eur<n><m><sg><m_soft>/Hour<n><f><m><sg><m_soft>/Hour<n><m><m><sg><m_soft>$ ^*seythenyek/*seythenyek$ ^*neb/*neb$ ^*a/*a$ ^*sen/*sen$ ^ilow<n><f><pl><m_soft>/Music<n><f><f><pl><m_soft>$ ^*Kernow/*Kernow$ ^*ha/*ha$ ^*Keltek/*Keltek$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*ha/*ha$ ^*presentys/*presentys$ ^*yn/*yn$ ^*Kernewek/*Kernewek$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ ||*An #Radio *yw #Programme *unn #Hour *seythenyek *neb *a *sen #Music *Kernow *ha *Keltek, *ha *presentys *yn *Kernewek.
|-
| 2 || Yma nowodhow yn Kernewek ynwedh ha keswel traweythyek. || ‘We also have news in Cornish and sometimes an interview. ’ || ^*Yma/*Yma$ ^nowodhow<n><m><pl><m_soft>/News<n><m><m><pl><m_soft>$ ^*yn/*yn$ ^*Kernewek/*Kernewek$ ^*ynwedh/*ynwedh$ ^*ha/*ha$ ^keswel<n><m><sg><m_rad>/Interview<n><m><m><sg><m_rad>$ ^*traweythyek/*traweythyek$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || *Yma #News *yn *Kernewek *ynwedh *ha #Interview *traweythyek.
|-
| 3 || Y hyllir agan klewes der Coast FM, Source FM, Chaos Radio ha Liskeard & Looe Radio. || 'You can also hear the show on Coast FM, Source FM, Chaos Radio and Liskeard & Looe Radio. ' || ^*Y/*Y$ ^*hyllir/*hyllir$ ^*agan/*agan$ ^*klewes/*klewes$ ^*der/*der$ ^*Coast/*Coast$ ^*FM/*FM$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*Source/*Source$ ^*FM/*FM$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*Chaos/*Chaos$ ^*Radio/*Radio$ ^*ha/*ha$ ^*Liskeard/*Liskeard$ & ^*Looe/*Looe$ ^*Radio/*Radio$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *Y *hyllir *agan *klewes *der *Coast *FM, *Source *FM, *Chaos *Radio *ha *Liskeard & *Looe *Radio.
|-
| 4 || Taves byw yw Kernewek, ha ni a wra ynnia orth agan studhyoryon dhe usya an asnodhow kavadow rag gwellhe aga yeth. Ottomma nebes tybyansow: || 'Cornish, Kernewek, is a living language and we encourage all our students to use the many resources available to improve their language. Here are some ideas:’ || ^Taves<n><m><sg><m_rad>/Language<n><m><m><sg><m_rad>$ ^*byw/*byw$ ^*yw/*yw$ ^*Kernewek/*Kernewek$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*ha/*ha$ ^*ni/*ni$ ^*a/*a$ ^*wra/*wra$ ^*ynnia/*ynnia$ ^*orth/*orth$ ^*agan/*agan$ ^studhyer<n><m><pl><m_soft>/Student<n><m><m><pl><m_soft>$ ^*dhe/*dhe$ ^*usya/*usya$ ^*an/*an$ ^asnodhow<n><m><pl><m_soft>/Resources<n><m><m><pl><m_soft>$ ^*kavadow/*kavadow$ ^*rag/*rag$ ^*gwellhe/*gwellhe$ ^*aga/*aga$ ^yeth<n><f><sg><m_soft>/Language<n><f><f><sg><m_soft>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ ^*Ottomma/*Ottomma$ ^nebes<n><m><sg><m_soft>/Some<n><m><m><sg><m_soft>$ ^tybyans<n><m><pl><m_rad>/Idea<n><m><m><pl><m_rad>/Opinion<n><m><m><pl><m_rad>/Thought<n><m><m><pl><m_rad>$^:<sent>/:<sent>$|| #Language *byw *yw *Kernewek, *ha *ni *a *wra *ynnia *orth *agan #Student *dhe *usya *an #Resources *kavadow *rag *gwellhe *aga #Language. *Ottomma #Some #Idea:
|-
| 5 ||Yma bagas lyverfas nowydh KDL omma. || 'There is a new 'KDL' Facebook group here.’ ||^*Yma/*Yma$ ^bagas<n><m><sg><m_rad>/Group<n><m><m><sg><m_rad>$ ^*lyverfas/*lyverfas$ ^*nowydh/*nowydh$ ^*KDL/*KDL$ ^*omma/*omma$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *Yma #Group *lyverfas *nowydh *KDL *omma.
|-
| 6 || Penn-seythen Kernewek yw chons meur a wellhe dha Gernewek kewsys. || 'The annual Cornish Language Weekend is a great opportunity to improve your spoken Cornish.’ || ^Penn-seythen<n><m><sg><m_rad>/Weekend<n><m><m><sg><m_rad>$ ^*Kernewek/*Kernewek$ ^*yw/*yw$ ^chons<n><m><sg><m_asp>/Chance<n><m><m><sg><m_asp>/Opportunity<n><m><m><sg><m_asp>$ ^*meur/*meur$ ^*a/*a$ ^*wellhe/*wellhe$ ^*dha/*dha$ ^*Gernewek/*Gernewek$ ^*kewsys/*kewsys$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || #Weekend *Kernewek *yw #Chance *meur *a *wellhe *dha *Gernewek *kewsys.
|-
| 7 ||Y tal dhe bub studhyor kemeres rann mars yw possybyl.|| 'All students should try it if they can.’ ||^*Y/*Y$ ^*tal/*tal$ ^*dhe/*dhe$ ^*bub/*bub$ ^*studhyor/*studhyor$ ^*kemeres/*kemeres$ ^*rann/*rann$ ^*mars/*mars$ ^*yw/*yw$ ^*possybyl/*possybyl$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *Y *tal *dhe *bub *studhyor *kemeres *rann *mars *yw *possybyl.
|-
| 8 || Goslowes orth An Nowodhow, bollyn pymp-mynysen orth BBC Radyo Kernow a-dro dhe 3.55 p.m. pub dy' Sul.|| ‘Listen to An Nowodhow, a five minute news bulletin from BBC Radio Cornwall about 3.55 p.m. every Sunday.’ || ^*Goslowes/*Goslowes$ ^*orth/*orth$ ^*An/*An$ ^Nowodhow<n><m><pl><m_soft>/News<n><m><m><pl><m_soft>$^,<cm>/,<cm>$ ^*bollyn/*bollyn$ ^*pymp/*pymp$-^*mynysen/*mynysen$ ^*orth/*orth$ ^*BBC/*BBC$ ^Radyo<n><m><sg><m_soft>/Radio<n><m><m><sg><m_soft>$ ^*Kernow/*Kernow$ ^*a/*a$-^*dro/*dro$ ^*dhe/*dhe$ ^*3/*3$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^*55/*55$ ^*p/*p$^.<sent>/.<sent>$^*m/*m$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ ^*pub/*pub$ ^*dy/*dy$' ^*Sul/*Sul$^.<sent>/.<sent>$ || *Goslowes *orth *An #News, *bollyn *pymp-*mynysen *orth *BBC #Radio *Kernow *a-*dro *dhe *3.*55 *p.*m. *pub *dy' *Sul.
|-
| 9 ||Yma’n skrifow omma. || 'The scripts are here.' || ^*Yma/*Yma$’^*n/*n$ ^*skrifow/*skrifow$ ^*omma/*omma$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *Yma’*n *skrifow *omma.
|-
| 10 || Ty a yll ‘goslowes arta’ ynwedh war BBC Sounds. || ‘You can also listen again on BBC Sounds.’ || ^*Ty/*Ty$ ^*a/*a$ ^*yll/*yll$ ‘^*goslowes/*goslowes$ ^*arta/*arta$’ ^*ynwedh/*ynwedh$ ^*war/*war$ ^*BBC/*BBC$ ^*Sounds/*Sounds$^.<sent>/.<sent>$|| *Ty *a *yll ‘*goslowes *arta’ *ynwedh *war *BBC *Sounds.
|}

TOP UNKNOWN WORDS:
14 ^an/*an$
14 ^a/*a$
12 ^ha/*ha$
9 ^yn/*yn$
9 ^dhe/*dhe$
8 ^Kernewek/*Kernewek$
6 ^orth/*orth$
6 ^efanvos/*efanvos$
5 ^yw/*yw$
4 ^war/*war$
4 ^termyn/*termyn$
4 ^rag/*rag$
4 ^n/*n$
4 ^An/*An$
3 ^pyth/*pyth$
3 ^pub/*pub$
3 ^lyver/*lyver$
3 ^gans/*gans$
3 ^Yma/*Yma$
3 ^Redya/*Redya$
coverage: 77 / 414 (~0.18599033816425120773)
remaining unknown forms: 337
ambiguity: 498 / 414 (~1.20289855072463768116)
cor.sentences.txt Tue Apr 14 11:33:43 AM EDT 2026 77/414 ~0.18599033816425120773 \| 498/414 ~1.20289855072463768116

[[Category: Sp26_TranslationPairs]]
[[Category: Kernowek]]
[[Category: English]]

Zazaki and English

2026-03-24T04:36:12Z

Xyuan2: /* MT pair (zza → eng) */

== Resources for machine translation between [[Zazaki]] and [[English]] ==

Corpus: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza-eng-corpus

== External resources ==

* [https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza-eng Language pair repository]

=== Transducers ===
*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/apertium-eng English transducer repository]

*[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza Zazaki transducer repository]

== Additions ==

For the polished RBMT phase, the following three expansions were made:

=== 1. Bilingual dictionary expansion ===

Added '''122 new bilingual entries''' to the bidix, drawn primarily from the top unknown words in a 1.48M-word Zazaki Wikipedia extract. Coverage on the large corpus rose from the midterm baseline (~40%) to '''51.66%'''. Categories:

* 65 masculine nouns
* 20 feminine nouns
* 5 proper nouns
* 4 adjectives
* 12 adverbs
* 2 reflexive/pronoun entries
* 4 new verbs and 4 verbs that existed in the lexd but were missing from the bidix
* Several postpositions and interrogatives that existed in the lexd but were missing from the bidix
* A generic numeral entry so that digits pass through translation correctly

The corresponding entries were added to the monolingual lexd file as well, so all new bidix stems analyse on the Zazaki side.

=== 2. New disambiguation rules (Constraint Grammar) ===

Added '''3 new CG rules''' to ''apertium-zza.zza.rlx'', bringing the total to 5:

* '''Rule 5: ''rê'' as postposition after a nominal.''' The token ''rê'' is ambiguous between the noun "road" (<n><m>) and the postposition "to/for" (<post>). Postpositions in Zazaki follow their complement, so when ''rê'' is preceded by a nominal it is the postposition. ~4,700 tokens disambiguated.
:: Example: ''Homayî rê duayî kerdêne'' "they prayed to God" — ''rê'' selected as <post>.

* '''Rule 6: ''xo'' reflexive as singular by default.''' The reflexive pronoun ''xo'' (~8,600 occurrences in the corpus) has identical surface forms for <ref><sg> and <ref><pl>. The singular reading is overwhelmingly more common.
:: Example: ''kitabê xo'' "his/her book" — ''xo'' selected as <sg>.

* '''Rule 7: Masculine noun -ê as <dir> (ezafe) before a nominal.''' Masculine nouns ending in -ê are ambiguous between <sg><dir> (ezafe construction) and <sg><ind> (indefinite). When followed by another nominal, the ezafe reading applies.
:: Example: ''welatê Zazayan'' "country of the Zazas" — ''welatê'' selected as <dir>.

The 5 rules together remove '''~45% of ambiguous analyses''' on the large corpus (1.0121 → 1.0067) and '''~42% on the basic parallel corpus''' (1.0344 → 1.0199).

=== 3. New lexical selection rules ===

Added '''2 new lrx rule sets''' (4 rules total) to ''apertium-zza-eng.zza-eng.lrx'', bringing the total to 3 sets:

* '''ser: "head" vs "year".''' ''ser'' primarily means "head" (body part), but in dating contexts (after a numeral) it means "year". A default rule selects "head"; a contextual rule selects "year" after a <num>.
:: ''1985 ser'' → "1985 year" (year reading)
:: ''ser ey'' → "head ..." (head reading)

* '''ra: "from" vs "to".''' The postposition ''ra'' usually means "from" (separation/source), but with speech verbs like ''vat'' "say", it marks the addressee and means "to".
:: ''cîneke ra va'' → "woman to said" (to reading)
:: ''Dêsım ra heta Çolig'' → "from Dêsım to Çolig" (from reading)

== Initial evaluation ==

=== Coverage ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Measure !! Tokens !! Coverage
|-
| Monolingual transducer (zza.automorf.bin) on zza.sentences.txt || 690 / 1166 || 59.2%
|-
| Bilingual transducer (zza-eng.automorf.bin) on zza.sentences.txt || 647 / 1123 || 57.6%
|}

=== 10 Sentence Analysis ===

{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Original (Zazaki) !! Intended English !! biltrans output !! Full translation output
|-
| 1 || Bi silametî şo. || Go in peace! || <code>^Bi<cnjcoo>/With<pr>$ ^silamet<n><m><pl><dir>/peace<n><pl><dir>$ ^şîy<v><imp><sg>/go<vblex><imp><sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || With #peace #go.
|-
| 2 || Îsayî va "Ti heqdar ê." || "You are right," Jesus said. || <code>^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>/Jesus<np><sg><obl>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ "^Tı<prn><pers><p2><sg><dir>/You<prn><pers><p2><sg><dir>$ ^heqdar<adj><m><sg>/right<adj><m><sg>$ ^bîy<v><pres><p2><sg>/be<vbser><pres><p2><sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$"</code> || #Jesus #say "#You #right are."
|-
| 3 || Şîmûnî va "Kerem bike Seyda." || Simon said "Please, Teacher." || <code>^Şîmûn<n><m><sg><obl>/Simon<np><sg><obl>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ "^Kerem<n><m><sg><dir>/Please<n><sg><dir>$ ^kerd<v><imp><sg>/do<vblex><imp><sg>$ ^Seyda<n><m><sg><dir>/Teacher<n><sg><dir>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$"</code> || #Simon #say "#Please #do #Teacher."
|-
| 4 || Şîmûnî cewab da va || Simon answered and said || <code>^Şîmûn<n><m><sg><obl>/Simon<np><sg><obl>$ ^cewab<n><m><sg><dir>/answer<n><sg><dir>$ ^day<v><past><p3><m><sg>/give<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$</code> || #Simon #answer #give #say
|-
| 5 || Îsayî zî cîneke ra va || Jesus also said to the woman || <code>^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>/Jesus<np><sg><obl>$ ^zî<post>/also<adv>$ ^cîneke<n><f><sg><dir>/woman<n><sg><dir>$ ^ra<post>/from<pr>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$</code> || #Jesus also #woman from #say
|-
| 6 || Îsayî cîneke ra va "Guneyê to ameyî efûkerdiş." || Jesus said to the woman, "Your sins are forgiven." || <code>^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>/Jesus<np><sg><obl>$ ^cîneke<n><f><sg><dir>/woman<n><sg><dir>$ ^ra<post>/from<pr>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ "^Guney<n><m><sg><ind>/Sin<n><sg><ind>$ ^tı<prn><pers><p2><sg><obl>/you<prn><pers><p2><sg><obl>$ ^amey<v><past><pl>/come<vblex><past><pl>$ ^efûkerdiş<n><m><sg><dir>/forgiveness<n><sg><dir>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$"</code> || #Jesus #woman from #say "#Sin #you #come #forgiveness."
|-
| 7 || Îsayî zî cîneke ra va "Îmanê to ti xelisnaya." || Jesus told the woman, "Your faith has saved you." || <code>^Îsa<n><m><sg><obl>/Jesus<np><sg><obl>$ ^zî<post>/also<adv>$ ^cîneke<n><f><sg><dir>/woman<n><sg><dir>$ ^ra<post>/from<pr>$ ^vat<v><past><p3><m><sg>/say<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ "^Îman<n><m><sg><ind>/Faith<n><sg><ind>$ ^tı<prn><pers><p2><sg><obl>/you<prn><pers><p2><sg><obl>$ ^tı<prn><pers><p2><sg><dir>/you<prn><pers><p2><sg><dir>$ ^xelisna<v><past><p3><f><sg>/save<vblex><past><p3><f><sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$"</code> || #Jesus also #woman from #say "#Faith #you #you #save."
|-
| 8 || La Îsa miyanê qelebalixî ra xelisîya û uca ra kewt dûrî. || But Jesus slipped through the crowd and got away. || <code>^La<cnjcoo>/But<cnjcoo>$ ^Îsa<n><m><sg><dir>/Jesus<np><sg><dir>$ ^miyan<n><m><sg><ind>/middle<n><sg><ind>$ ^qelebalix<n><m><pl><dir>/crowd<n><pl><dir>$ ^ra<post>/from<pr>$ ^xelisîy<v><past><p3><m><sg>/escape<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^û<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^uca<adv>/there<adv>$ ^ra<post>/from<pr>$ ^kewt<v><past><p3><m><sg>/fall<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^dûrî<adj><m><sg>/far<adj><m><sg>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || But #Jesus #middle #crowd from #escape and there from #fall #far.
|-
| 9 || Şagirdan zî o qeyde kerd û her kes da roniştiş. || They did this, and all the people sat down. || <code>^Şagird<n><m><pl><obl>/Disciple<n><pl><obl>$ ^zî<post>/also<adv>$ ^o<det><dem><m><dir>/that<det><dem><m><dir>$ ^qeyde<n><m><sg><dir>/manner<n><sg><dir>$ ^kerd<v><past><p3><m><sg>/do<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^û<cnjcoo>/and<cnjcoo>$ ^her<adv>/every<adv>$ ^kes<n><m><sg><dir>/person<n><sg><dir>$ ^day<v><past><p3><m><sg>/give<vblex><past><p3><m><sg>$ ^roniştiş<n><m><sg><dir>/sitting<n><sg><dir>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || #Disciple also #that #manner #do and every #person #give #sitting.
|-
| 10 || Ew no dano pıro şıno koli. || Then he set off to cut firewood. || <code>^Ew<prn><pers><p3><pl><dir>/He<prn><pers><p3><pl><dir>$ ^no<det><dem><m><dir>/this<det><dem><m><dir>$ ^day<v><pres><p3><m><sg>/give<vblex><pres><p3><m><sg>$ ^pıro<post>/onto<pr>$ ^şîy<v><pres><p3><m><sg>/go<vblex><pres><p3><m><sg>$ ^koli<n><m><sg><dir>/firewood<n><sg><dir>$^.<sent>/.<sent>$</code> || #He #this #give onto #go #firewood.
|}

== Final evaluation ==

=== Monolingual transducer ===

* '''Stems in transducer:''' 265
* '''Words in large corpus (zza.corpus.large.wiki.txt):''' 1,478,167
* '''Coverage over large corpus:''' 51.66% (1,039,506 known / 2,012,031 tokens)
* '''Precision:''' 75.16%
* '''Recall:''' 46.18%
* '''F1:''' 57.21%

(Precision and recall measured against zza.eval.test.txt and zza.eval.gold.txt; 249 cohorts compared.)

=== Disambiguation ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Corpus !! Ambiguity before CG !! Ambiguity after CG !! Reduction
|-
| Large Wikipedia corpus || 1.0121 || 1.0067 || ~45%
|-
| Basic parallel corpus || 1.0344 || 1.0199 || ~42%
|}

The 5 disambiguation rules together remove a substantial proportion of ambiguous analyses, particularly in resolving high-frequency forms like ''rê'', ''xo'', and ezafe-marked masculine nouns.

=== zza → eng ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Measure !! Value
|-
| Tokens in longer corpus (zza.longer.txt) || 944 words / 1,093 tokens
|-
| Tokens in large corpus (zza.corpus.large.wiki.txt) || 1,478,167 words / 1,919,996 tokens
|-
| Trimmed coverage over longer corpus || 60.10% (657 / 1,093)
|-
| Trimmed coverage over large corpus || 49.05% (941,946 / 1,919,996)
|-
| WER over longer corpus || 94.96%
|-
| PER over longer corpus || 84.88%
|-
| Stem translation accuracy over longer corpus || 47.00% (47 of 100 system-produced unique English lemmas appear in the gold reference)
|}

WER and PER are high because most content words in the longer corpus (Bible passages and folktale fragments) remain unknown stems. Stem translation accuracy of 47% indicates that roughly half of the English lemmas the system produces are present in the gold reference, suggesting the bidix entries that exist are largely correct.

== Ambiguity Resolution ==
Find the [https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/ling073/Zazaki_and_English/Ambiguity_Resolution Ambiguity Resolution] here.

[[Category: Sp26_TranslationPairs]]
[[Category: Zazaki]]
[[Category: English]]

RGyalrong/Grammar

2026-03-14T12:35:43Z

Slu4:

[https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/ling073/RGyalrong_(Situ)/Grammar Situ Grammar]
[https://wikis.swarthmore.edu/ling073/Japhug/Grammar Japhug Grammar]

Wichita/Grammar

2026-03-05T15:59:57Z

Dgilber1: /* Nouns */

==Language/Grammar==

Wichita is a complex language that allows for a single word to act like an entire sentence. It does this by noun incorporation, which lets you use a noun root inside of a verb to create one long word. Instead of using separate words for "I" or "you" it uses a special form of the verb "to be" to show who is talking. In addition to this, most words for describing things like size, amount, and status are also connected directly to the words they are describing.

===Nouns===
Wichita nouns can take any of three suffixes, instrumental, locative, or a marker of the combining form. On some occasions, the definite article will also become suffixed as well. Beyond these markers, many nouns undergo a distinct shift when incorporated into verbs, transitioning from an independent word into a shortened root.

*{{morphTest|haːrhiwiːc{{tag|n}}{{tag|ins}}|haːrhiwiːcáːhir}} "using a bowl"
*{{morphTest|ikaːˀa{{tag|n}}{{tag|ins}}|ikaːráːhir}} "with a rock"
*{{morphTest|kirikirˀiːs{{tag|n}}{{tag|ins}}|kirikirˀiːsáːhir}} "in Wichita (the language)"
*{{morphTest|ikaːˀa{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|ikaːkíyah}} "where the rock is"
*{{morphTest|hirahrˀa{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|hánnhirh}} "on the ground"
*{{morphTest|kˀítaːks{{tag|n}}|kˀítaːks}} "coyote"

===Pronouns===
English has no direct translation for pronouns in Wichita. Instead of using the typical pronouns, Wichita uses inflected participles of the verbs "be", "you" (sg., dual, pl.) and the demonstratives 'that' or 'those' in order to portray the same ideas. Further, many pronouns are formed through specific prefixes that create interrogative, indefinite, or negative meanings from a shared root.
*{{morphTest|eːkiriˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}|eːkiriˀ}} "what?"

*{{morphTest|kaːkiriˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ind}}|kaːkiriˀ}} "something"

*{{morphTest|káːkiriˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|neg}}|káːkiriˀ}} "nothing"

*{{morphTest|kaːckinc{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ind}}|kaːckinc}} "so many", "so much"

*{{morphTest|eːckinc{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}|eːckinc}} "how many?"

*{{morphTest|eːsiːˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}|eːsiːˀ}} "how? what?"

*{{morphTest|káːkiyaˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|neg}}|káːkiyaˀ}} "nobody"

*{{morphTest|eːsis{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}|eːsis}} "how far? how long?"

*{{morphTest|hárah{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}|hárah}} "there"
*{{morphTest|natíriˀ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|rel}}|natíriˀ}} "that which"

===Adjectives===
Like pronouns, adjectives aren't really their own separate word class. They are actually stative verbs that describe how something is. You have three main ways to use them. You can incorporate the noun right into the describing verb or keep the noun as a separate word before or after the verb. You can also turn the verb into a participle to describe a noun, like saying "a fat horse" instead of "the horse is fat."
*{{morphTest|néːrhirˀa{{tag|n}}+tac{{tag|v}}{{tag|inc}}|tac tiréːrhirˀasˀi}} "the buffalo is big"
*{{morphTest|néːrhirˀa{{tag|n}}+tac{{tag|v}}|néːrhirˀa tac tiˀi}} "the buffalo is big"
*{{morphTest|tac{{tag|v}}+néːrhirˀa{{tag|n}}|tac tiˀi néːrhirˀa}} "the buffalo is big"
*{{morphTest|kawáːrah{{tag|n}}+heːc{{tag|v}}{{tag|inc}}|tiheːctaːrasˀi}} "the horse is fat"
*{{morphTest|kawáːrah{{tag|n}}+heːc{{tag|v}}|kawáːrah tiheːcˀi}} "the horse is fat"
*{{morphTest|heːc{{tag|v}}+kawáːrah{{tag|n}}|tiheːcˀi kawáːrah}} "the horse is fat"
*{{morphTest|kawáːrah{{tag|n}}+heːc{{tag|v}}|kawáːrah nahéːcˀih}} "a fat horse"

===Quantifiers and Demonstratives===
In Wichita, quantifiers and demonstratives usually show up as attached endings to pre-existing words. Generally, they are used to describe specific locations or to talk about the amount of something present. When using them to describe a noun, they can either stand alone (which is more uncommon), or be incorporated directly into the verb with a short suffix.
*{{morphTest|táːkwicha{{tag|qnt}}+hasˀ{{tag|v}}{{tag|nar}}+aːˀaːki{{tag|aor}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}+weˀes{{tag|n}}ˀarhi{{tag|v}}|táːkwicha hasˀaːˀaːkiwéˀesˀarhi}} "There were four dogs"
*{{morphTest|áːkikeˀe{{tag|aor}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}+katakshirˀa{{tag|n}}+chíˀass{{tag|v}}|áːkikeˀekatâkshirˀa chíˀass}} "One cloud appeared"
*{{morphTest|hirahrˀa{{tag|loc}}{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}+tiˀi{{tag|n}}|hiraːrˀ tiˀi}} "That one right there"

===Interjections===
Unlike a lot of other words in the Wichita language, interjections do not get used in pre-existing words. They are commonly used at the beginning of sentences to grab the readers attention but do not necessarily use the same patterns that the rest of the language does. You will find these interjections present in the dialogue of Wichita stories, as words and phrases like this are commonly used when talking to one another.
*{{morphTest|éːh{{tag|ij}}|éːh}} "Oh! I forgot!"
*{{morphTest|íːyáːh{{tag|ij}}|íːyáːh}} "Alas!"
*{{morphTest|híːróːh{{tag|ij}}|híːróːh}} "Ha! Ha!"
*{{morphTest|háˀwih{{tag|ij}}|háˀwih}} "OK!"
*{{morphTest|awˀ{{tag|ij}}|awˀ}} "Hey, you!"
*{{morphTest|kˀ{{tag|ij}}|kˀ}} "Ugh!" or "Yeech!"
*{{morphTest|ehérh{{tag|ij}}|ehérh}} "Go!"

===Conjunctions===
In Wichita, conjunctions are the handy words that glue sentences and ideas together. You have coordinating conjunctions that connect two equal parts of a sentence like "and" or "but." Then you have subordinating conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause to show a cause or a condition. These words don't change their shape or get buried inside verbs, so they are usually easy to spot in a text.
*{{morphTest|hinniˀ{{tag|cnjcoo}}|hinniˀ}} "and"
*{{morphTest|eːkw{{tag|cnjcoo}}|eːkw}} "or"
*{{morphTest|hiriwaːˀ{{tag|cnjcoo}}|hiriwaːˀ}} "and then"
*{{morphTest|hiriˀ{{tag|cnjadv}}|hiriˀ}} "in that case"
*{{morphTest|hiːwéˀewakhaːr{{tag|cnjsub}}|hiːwéˀewakhaːr}} "because"
*{{morphTest|haːwaˀ{{tag|cnjadv}}|haːwaˀ}} "also"

===Adverbs===
In Wichita, adverbs are mostly independent words that stay the same no matter where they are in a sentence. They usually show up right before the verb they are modifying to tell you how, when, or where an action is happening. Some of these adverbs are actually just built out of noun or verb roots that have been turned into specialized markers for time and place.
*{{morphTest|wéra{{tag|adv}}|wéra}} "now"
*{{morphTest|waˀ{{tag|adv}}|waˀ}} "yet"
*{{morphTest|hirˀíːs{{tag|adv}}|hirˀíːs}} "long ago"
*{{morphTest|asskhaˀ{{tag|adv}}|asskhaˀ}} "again"
*{{morphTest|tiˀrih{{tag|adv}}|tiˀrih}} "here"
*{{morphTest|haraˀ{{tag|adv}}|haraˀ}} "over there"
*{{morphTest|hiːríkaːh{{tag|adv}}|hiːríkaːh}} "inside"
*{{morphTest|híːrakaːh{{tag|adv}}|híːrakaːh}} "outside"
*{{morphTest|akwithah{{tag|adv}}|akwithah}} "above"
*{{morphTest|wickhéːˀ{{tag|adv}}|wickhéːˀ}} "well"
*{{morphTest|hassis{{tag|adv}}|hassis}} "really"
*{{morphTest|isaˀ{{tag|adv}}|isaˀ}} "maybe"
*{{morphTest|khaˀ{{tag|adv}}|khaˀ}} "not"
*{{morphTest|ickiriˀ{{tag|adv}}|ickiriˀ}} "only"
*{{morphTest|kas{{tag|adv}}|kas}} "almost"
*{{morphTest|acs{{tag|adv}}|acs}} "very"
*{{morphTest|wickheˀes{{tag|adv}}|wickheˀes}} "quickly"

===Verbs===
In Wichita, verbs are integral because a single word can act like a whole sentence. They use a massive system of 34 position classes to pack in details about who is doing what and when.

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|qot}}|áːkaˀarásis}} "I heard she was cooking it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|qot}}|áːkaˀarásiki}} "I heard she cooked it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|inten}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|qot}}|áːkaˀarásistaris}} "I heard she was planning on cooking it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|aor}}{{tag|qot}}|áːkaˀarásikiːss}} "I heard she always cooked it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|aor}}|ákaˀárasis}} "I know myself she was cooking it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|aor}}|ákaˀárasiki}} "I know myself she cooked it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|inten}}{{tag|aor}}|ákaˀarásistaris}} "I know myself she was going to cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|aor}}|ákaˀaraásikiːss}} "I know myself she always cooked it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|fut}}|keˀárasiki}} "She will cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|fut}}|keˀárasis}} "She will be cooking it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|fut}}|keˀárasikiːss}} "She will always cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|qot}}|ehéˀárasiki}} "I heard she will cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|qot}}|ehéˀárasis}} "I heard she will be cooking it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|qot}}|eheˀárasikiːss}} "I heard she will always be the one to cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|ind}}|taˀarásis}} "She is cooking it"; "She cooked it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|inten}}{{tag|ind}}|taˀarásistaris}} "She's planning to cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|ind}}|taˀarásikiːːs}} "She always cooks it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|excl}}|ískiráːrásis}} "There she goes, cooking it!"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ipfv}}{{tag|dir}}|aˀarásis}} "Then you cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|imp}}|haˀarásiki}} "Let her cook it"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pfv}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|fut}}|kiːˀárasiki}} "Let her cook it later"

*{{morphTest|ˀarasi{{tag|v}}{{tag|genr}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|fut}}|kiːˀárasikiːss}} "You must always let her cook it"

[[Category:sp26_GrammarDocumentation]], [[Category:Wichita]]

Mandinka/Transducer

2026-03-03T16:10:22Z

Mmakhsu1:

[[Category: Mandinka]]

[[Category: Sp26_Transducers]]

Generating hitparade (might take a bit!)
TOP UNKNOWN WORDS:
68 ^a/*a$
44 ^wuluu/*wuluu$
41 ^le/*le$
20 ^ko/*ko$
19 ^ka/*ka$
14 ^meŋ/*meŋ$
13 ^y/*y$
12 ^mu/*mu$
10 ^ti/*ti$
9 ^wo/*wo$
9 ^kono/*kono$
9 ^bo/*bo$
9 ^A/*A$
8 ^ì/*ì$
8 ^niŋ/*niŋ$
8 ^konno/*konno$
7 ^nata/*nata$
6 ^ta/*ta$
6 ^na/*na$
6 ^kuntinyo/*kuntinyo$
coverage: 345 / 1325 (~0.26037735849056603774)
remaining unknown forms: 980
ambiguity: 1536 / 1325 (~1.15924528301886792453)
mnk.corpus Mon Mar 16 11:04:57 PM EDT 2026 345/1325 ~0.26037735849056603774 \| 1536/1325 ~1.15924528301886792453

Corpus 1 of 12: Gerunds-morph
16/16 (100.0%) tests pass (6/16 (37.5%) match gold)

Corpus 2 of 12: Gerunds-gen
16/16 (100.0%) tests pass (8/16 (50.0%) match gold)

Corpus 3 of 12: Infinitives-morph
8/8 (100.0%) tests pass (8/8 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 4 of 12: Infinitives-gen
8/8 (100.0%) tests pass (4/8 (50.0%) match gold)

Corpus 5 of 12: Negative Auxiliaries-morph
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 6 of 12: Negative Auxiliaries-gen
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 7 of 12: Related Auxiliaries-morph
3/3 (100.0%) tests pass (3/3 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 8 of 12: Related Auxiliaries-gen
3/3 (100.0%) tests pass (3/3 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 9 of 12: Adverbs-morph
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 10 of 12: Adverbs-gen
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 11 of 12: Plurals-morph
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (4/5 (80.0%) match gold)

Corpus 12 of 12: Plurals-gen
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (4/5 (80.0%) match gold)

Kernowek/Transducer

2026-03-03T15:00:57Z

Bhollan2:

== Evaluation ==
cat /home/bhollan2/ling073/Ling073-cor-corpus/Cor.Bible.genisis.txt | apertium -d /home/bhollan2/ling073-cor cor-morph | cg-conv -a > /home/bhollan2/ling073/Ling073-cor-corpus/Cor.Bible.genisis.out.txt
cat /home/bhollan2/ling073/Ling073-cor-corpus/Cor.corpus.basic.txt | apertium -d /home/bhollan2/ling073-cor cor-morph | cg-conv -a > /home/bhollan2/ling073/Ling073-cor-corpus/Cor.corpus.basic.out.txt

=== Corpus Test ===
2532 ^a/*a$
1763 ^ha/*ha$
1238 ^an/*an$
1232 ^y/*y$
908 ^yn/*yn$
815 ^dhe/*dhe$
691 ^n/*n$
552 ^ow/*ow$
513 ^hag/*hag$
493 ^ev/*ev$
367 ^re/*re$
297 ^war/*war$
288 ^yw/*yw$
266 ^rag/*rag$
262 ^Hag/*Hag$
244 ^Ha/*Ha$
241 ^dha/*dha$
238 ^medh/*medh$
236 ^my/*my$
225 ^Duw/*Duw$
coverage: 11478 / 49772 (~0.23061158884513381017)
remaining unknown forms: 38294

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]]
[[Category:Kernowek]]

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]]
[[Category:Kernowek]]

RGyalrong (Situ)/Transducer

2026-02-28T09:01:05Z

Rgergun1: Generator Evaluation added

== Generator Evaluation ==

Initial Evaluation of Morphological Generation

=== Gold Tests: ===

<nowiki>$ apertium-regtest test -c .-gen
Corpus 1 of 7: Dual Enclitics-gen
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (3/5 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 2 of 7: Plural Enclitics-gen
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (3/5 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 3 of 7: Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker-gen
20/20 (100.0%) tests pass (12/20 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 4 of 7: First Person Pronouns-gen
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 5 of 7: Third Person Pronouns-gen
10/10 (100.0%) tests pass (10/10 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 6 of 7: Nouns and Noun Phrases-gen
14/14 (100.0%) tests pass (12/14 (85.71%) match gold)

Corpus 7 of 7: Nominalisation of Verbs-gen
14/14 (100.0%) tests pass (12/14 (85.71%) match gold)

All tests pass. </nowiki>

=== Corpus Tests: ===

<nowiki>$ aq-covtest ../ling073-jya/corpus/new-basic-corpus.txt jya.automorf.bin
Number of tokenised words in the corpus: 1412
Coverage: 16.78%
Top unknown words in the corpus:
88 nə
81 kə
67 də
53 na
39 məʔ
32 jo
29 da
24 wu
22 bə
22 jə
20 ti
19 ma
17 txi
16 shə
15 dxe
15 ka
14 ta
14 shnə
14 va
12 do</nowiki>

=== Total Test Count: ===
<nowiki> $ wc -l test/*/*-morph-input.txt
20 test/Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker/Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker-morph-input.txt
5 test/Dual Enclitics/Dual Enclitics-morph-input.txt
6 test/First Person Pronouns/First Person Pronouns-morph-input.txt
14 test/Nominalisation of Verbs/Nominalisation of Verbs-morph-input.txt
14 test/Nouns and Noun Phrases/Nouns and Noun Phrases-morph-input.txt
5 test/Plural Enclitics/Plural Enclitics-morph-input.txt
10 test/Third Person Pronouns/Third Person Pronouns-morph-input.txt
74 total </nowiki>

== Analyzer Evaluation ==

=== Gold Tests: ===
<nowiki> Corpus 1 of 7: Dual Enclitics-morph
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (3/5 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 2 of 7: Plural Enclitics-morph
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (3/5 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 3 of 7: Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker-morph
20/20 (100.0%) tests pass (11/20 (55.0%) match gold)

Corpus 4 of 7: First Person Pronouns-morph
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 5 of 7: Third Person Pronouns-morph
8/8 (100.0%) tests pass (0/8 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 6 of 7: Nouns and Noun Phrases-morph
14/14 (100.0%) tests pass (3/14 (21.43%) match gold)

Corpus 7 of 7: Nominalisation of Verbs-morph
14/14 (100.0%) tests pass (7/14 (50.0%) match gold)

All tests pass. </nowiki>

=== Corpus Tests: ===

<nowiki>$ aq-covtest ../ling073-jya/corpus/215622887517957257.txt jya.automorf.bin
Number of tokenised words in the corpus: 104
Coverage: 12.50%
Top unknown words in the corpus:
19 ŋo
10 nə
7 ne
6 tsə
6 zi
4 wu
4 le
3 tʰa
3 ta
3 ŋə
2 səⁱ
2 si
2 ŋe
2 tsʰoŋ
2 mə
2 coŋ
1 tʰi
1 ti
1 tə
1 de
Translation time: 0.007706165313720703 seconds </nowiki>

=== Total Test Count: ===
<nowiki> $ wc -l test/*/*-morph-input.txt
20 test/Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker/Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker-morph-input.txt
5 test/Dual Enclitics/Dual Enclitics-morph-input.txt
6 test/First Person Pronouns/First Person Pronouns-morph-input.txt
14 test/Nominalisation of Verbs/Nominalisation of Verbs-morph-input.txt
14 test/Nouns and Noun Phrases/Nouns and Noun Phrases-morph-input.txt
5 test/Plural Enclitics/Plural Enclitics-morph-input.txt
10 test/Third Person Pronouns/Third Person Pronouns-morph-input.txt
74 total </nowiki>

== Notes: ==

# At this point, the corpus was using a different writing style (IPA) than the romanization that we later developed. Therefore, many of the misses (and hence the low accuracy) are due to the fact that our corpus hasn't been fully transcribed in our romanization yet.

== Repo link ==

[https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-jya GitHub]

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]] [[Category:rGyalrong (Situ)]]

Kickapoo/Transducer

2026-02-27T16:44:04Z

Kpeng1: /* Final Evaluation For Morphological Generation */

Our code is listed here: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-kic

== Evaluations ==

=== Transducer size ===

Using <code>lexd -x apertium-kic.kic.lexd > /dev/null</code>, the current transducer contains:

{| class="wikitable"
! Category
! Count
|-
| Lexicons
| 28
|-
| Lexicon entries
| 105
|-
| Patterns
| 14
|-
| Pattern entries
| 26
|}

=== Total number of stems in the transducer ===

We counted only open-class lexical stem lexicons and excluded punctuation, affixes, person markers, tense/mode markers, and other closed-class/function-word lexicons.

{| class="wikitable"
! Stem lexicon
! Count
|-
| A-Stems
| 8
|-
| I-Stems
| 5
|-
| L-Stems
| 1
|-
| Verbstem
| 2
|-
| VStem_AA
| 4
|-
! Total
! 20
|}

=== Current coverage over the combined corpus ===

Coverage before adding common words:
* <code>83 / 584 = 14.21%</code>

Current coverage:
* <code>133 / 584 = 22.77%</code>

Improvement in coverage:
* <code>+50</code> analysed tokens
* <code>+8.56 percentage points</code>

Additional corpus statistics:
* Remaining unknown forms: <code>451</code>
* Ambiguity: <code>847 / 584 = 1.45</code>

=== Current top unknown words ===

{| class="wikitable"
! Rank
! Unknown word
! Frequency
|-
| 1
| <code>kwiyatheeha</code>
| 4
|-
| 2
| <code>awiyeehi</code>
| 4
|-
| 3
| <code>yoóh</code>
| 3
|-
| 4
| <code>yaaha</code>
| 3
|-
| 5
| <code>sehe</code>
| 3
|-
| 6
| <code>iskweetheehani</code>
| 3
|-
| 7
| <code>epapakethomehaki</code>
| 3
|-
| 8
| <code>aia</code>
| 3
|-
| 9
| <code>yoohi</code>
| 2
|-
| 10
| <code>yeetoke</code>
| 2
|-
| 11
| <code>witheniikaani</code>
| 2
|-
| 12
| <code>weepenaanwi</code>
| 2
|-
| 13
| <code>tahkiai</code>
| 2
|-
| 14
| <code>seeski</code>
| 2
|-
| 15
| <code>see</code>
| 2
|-
| 16
| <code>poohkamáaki</code>
| 2
|-
| 17
| <code>papakethohahi</code>
| 2
|-
| 18
| <code>nootha</code>
| 2
|-
| 19
| <code>niihpya</code>
| 2
|-
| 20
| <code>nekoti</code>
| 2
|}

===Unimplemented===

# Vaux in Aspect not yet added; we haven't figured out a way to correctly analyze it;
# Negation also not yet added due to the same reason;
# Mode not yet added, may require further discussion;

=== Regtest results ===

The following table shows the number of tests that pass in each corpus.

{| class="wikitable"
! Corpus
! Tests passed
! Match gold
|-
| analysis
| 2 / 2
| 0 / 2
|-
| generation
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Animate Nouns-morph
| 2 / 2
| 2 / 2
|-
| Animate Nouns-gen
| 2 / 2
| 1 / 2
|-
| Inanimate Nouns-morph
| 2 / 2
| 1 / 2
|-
| Inanimate Nouns-gen
| 2 / 2
| 1 / 2
|-
| Noun Inflection (Posession)-morph
| 5 / 5
| 5 / 5
|-
| Noun Inflection (Posession)-gen
| 5 / 5
| 1 / 5
|-
| Person-morph
| 10 / 10
| 9 / 10
|-
| Person-gen
| 10 / 10
| 0 / 10
|-
| Future Tense-morph
| 2 / 2
| 0 / 2
|-
| Future Tense-gen
| 2 / 2
| 0 / 2
|-
| First Aorist-morph
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| First Aorist-gen
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Second Aorist-morph
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Second Aorist-gen
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Third Aorist-morph
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Third Aorist-gen
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Aspect-morph
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Aspect-gen
| 1 / 1
| 0 / 1
|-
| Mode-morph
| 6 / 6
| 0 / 6
|-
| Mode-gen
| 6 / 6
| 0 / 6
|-
| Negation-morph
| 6 / 6
| 0 / 6
|-
| Negation-gen
| 7 / 7
| 0 / 7
|-
| Locative-morph
| 1 / 1
| 1 / 1
|-
| Locative-gen
| 1 / 1
| 1 / 1
|-
| commonwords-morph
| 4 / 4
| 4 / 4
|}

=== Test status summary ===

All 27 corpora currently pass all tests:
* '''79 / 79 tests pass (100%)'''

=== Commonwords evaluation ===

We added a new <code>commonwords-morph</code> test file for frequent unknown words from the corpus.

{| class="wikitable"
! Corpus
! Tests passed
! Match gold
|-
| commonwords-morph
| 4 / 4
| 4 / 4
|}

== Notes ==

===Unresolved Tests===

== Analyser Evaluation ==

===Twol Rules===

No Twol rules are added; No verification has been noticed in Kickapoo grammar in the new script.

===Updated Stem Counts===

Lexicons: 29
Lexicon entries: 106
Patterns: 13
Pattern entries: 26

Counts for individual lexicons:

Punctuation: 22

Demonstrative: 2

Particle: 1

A-Stems: 8

A-Number: 2

A-Poss: 5

I-Stems: 5

I-Number: 2

I-Poss: 5

L-Stems: 1

Loc: 1

Adverb: 1

Conj: 1

PrefPerson: 2

Vaux: 15

Verbstem: 2

VerbAnimacy: 2

SuffPerson: 8

Tense: 3

VStem_AA: 4

V-Mode: 5

Numeral: 3

All anonymous lexicons: 6

===Generator Evaluation===

Corpus 1 of 12: Animate Nouns-morph
2/2 (100.0%) tests pass (2/2 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 2 of 12: Inanimate Nouns-morph
2/2 (100.0%) tests pass (1/2 (50.0%) match gold)

Corpus 3 of 12: Noun Inflection (Posession)-morph
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 4 of 12: Person-morph
10/10 (100.0%) tests pass (3/10 (30.0%) match gold)

Corpus 5 of 12: Future Tense-morph
2/2 (100.0%) tests pass (0/2 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 6 of 12: First Aorist-morph
1/1 (100.0%) tests pass (0/1 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 7 of 12: Second Aorist-morph
1/1 (100.0%) tests pass (0/1 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 8 of 12: Third Aorist-morph
1/1 (100.0%) tests pass (0/1 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 9 of 12: Aspect-morph
1/1 (100.0%) tests pass (0/1 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 10 of 12: Mode-morph
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (0/6 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 11 of 12: Negation-morph
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (0/6 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 12 of 12: Locative-morph
1/1 (100.0%) tests pass (1/1 (100.0%) match gold)

All tests pass.

== Final Evaluation For Morphological Generation ==

The morphological generation component now passes '''95 out of 95 tests''', with '''0 failing tests'''.

Overall, the system achieves a '''match gold rate of 72/95 = 75.8%'''.

For this part of the assignment, we added '''2''' new twol rules.

When we reran the coverage test on the largest corpus, the new coverage was '''24.01%'''.

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]]
[[Category: Kickapoo]]

Wichita/Transducer

2026-02-27T03:41:46Z

Vkomore1: /* Final Evaluation of Morphological Generation */

==Initial Evaluation of Morphological Generation==

https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-wic

===Evaluation===

*100% of tests pass, besides Adjectives (50%) and Unknown Words (93.75%).

====Transducer Size:====

{| class="wikitable"
! Category
! Count
|-
| Lexicons
| 24
|-
| Lexicon entries
| 107
|-
| Patterns
| 3
|-
| Pattern entries
| 12
|}

====Total Stems:====

{| class="wikitable"
! Stem lexicon
! Count
|-
| Punctuation
| 22
|-
| Aspect
| 3
|-
| Person
| 7
|-
| VerbRoot
| 9
|-
| PronounRoot
| 10
|-
| InterjectionRoot
| 7
|-
| AdverbRoot
| 17
|-
| ConjunctionRoot
| 6
|-
| Adjectives
| 2
|-
| NounRoot
| 6
|-
| Cases
| 2
|-
| Narrative
| 1
|-
| Quotative
| 2
|-
| Object
| 1
|-
| V-Suffixes
| 3
|-
| Numeral
| 2
|-
| All anonymous lexicons
| 7
|-
! Total
! 107
|}

====Coverage:====

Coverage before addition: ~31%

Coverage after addition: ~33%

Top Unknown Words:

*hinniˀ → Fixed
*kˀítaːks
*aːkoːkˀa
*wéraˀ
*kíkˀiːs
*hiriwa → Fixed
*niyeːs
*haˀwiːˀ
*híriˀ
*harah
*tiˀi
*naːhissah
*khiˀas
*éːkiriˀ → Fixed
*éːkaːˀ
*wáːcˀarˀa

===Notes===
12/16 Verb tests currently don't match gold, because the tags don't match between the code and the wiki.

1/5 Noun tests don't match gold because we haven't coded the root change for this verb.

0/3 Noun Incorporation tests match gold, due to formatting issues.

0/10 Pronoun tests match gold, because their tags have not been added to the lexicon.

0/6 Adjective tests match gold. Multiple words mean the same phrase, so we have been unable to make distinct rules for them.

0/3 Conjunction tests match gold, due to their tags not being included in the lexicon.

0/3 Quantifiers and Demonstrative tests match gold, due to their tags not being included in the lexicon.

1/17 Adverb tests don't match gold as it is missing a tag.

13/15 Unknown Words don't match gold, as their tags are not included in the lexicon.

*By adding <cnjcoo> to hinniˀ and hiriwa, as well as <n> to éːkiriˀ, coverage increased by ~2%.

==Analyzer Evaluation==
===Initial Evaluation===
Coverage: ~33%

Number of Passing Tests: 85/89 (~96%)
*All test are 100% passing besides Adjectives (3/6 = 50%) and Unknown Words (15/16 = 93.75%).

Number of Tests Matching Gold: 39/85 (~46%)
*Our number of tests matching gold decreased slightly after adding our unknown word tests at the end of the previous lab.

Gold Tests:
*4/5 Nouns
*0/3 Noun Incorporation
*0/10 Pronouns
*0/3 Adjectives
*0/3 Quantifiers & Demonstratives
*7/7 Interjections
*6/6 Conjunctions
*16/17 Adverbs
*4/16 Verbs
*2/15 Unknown Words

Number of Gold Matches for Generation Test: 42‌‌/76 (~55%)

===Final Evaluation of Morphological Generation===

Updated Coverage: 38.3%

Number of Passing Tests: 89

Number of Tests Matching Gold: 55/89 --> 62%

Gold Tests:
*0/5 Nouns
*10/10 Pronouns
*0/6 Adjectives
*7/7 Interjections
*6/6 Conjunctions
*17/17 Adverbs
*10/22 Verbs
*5/16 Unknown Words

Number of Gold Matches for Generation Test: 56/89 (63%)

Twol Rules:
*2 added
*0 modified

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]]

Zazaki/Transducer

2026-02-26T16:01:42Z

Sli5: /* Twol rules */

For code, check here: https://github.swarthmore.edu/Ling073-sp26/ling073-zza.git

== Analyzer Evaluation ==

=== Notes ===

Tests that don't match gold and why:

* mar<n> <m> <f> <sg> <dir> - Uses both <m> and <f> tags simultaneously, which is non-standard for Apertium. Would need a separate gender class for dual-gender nouns.
* panj roj-i - Multiword expression with a hyphenated plural. Lexd cannot handle multiword units as single analyses.
* merdımêndo and çayênda (indefinite + ezafe) - The ezafe suffix interacts with the indefinite suffix (-ên + ezafe), requiring additional morphology beyond simple indefinite -ê. Not yet implemented.
* Number/Case ambiguity - Masculine singular oblique and plural direct both surface as -i (e.g., roji, bergiri, laji). The analyser correctly produces both analyses; this is genuine ambiguity in the language.

==== Test Breakdown ====
Here's the test and match gold result for each corpus:

Corpus 1 of 16: Gender-morph:
4/4 (100.0%) tests pass (3/4 (75.0%) match gold)

Corpus 2 of 16: Number-morph:
3/3 (100.0%) tests pass (0/3 (0.0%) match gold)

Corpus 3 of 16: Case and Specificity-morph:
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (3/5 (60.0%) match gold)

Corpus 4 of 16: Indefinite Suffix-morph:
4/4 (100.0%) tests pass (2/4 (50.0%) match gold)

Corpus 5 of 16: Personal Pronouns-morph:
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 6 of 16: Interrogative Pronouns-morph:
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 7 of 16: Descriptive Adjectives-morph:
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 8 of 16: (Demonstrative) Determiners-morph:
4/4 (100.0%) tests pass (4/4 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 9 of 16: Present Tense-morph:
4/4 (100.0%) tests pass (4/4 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 10 of 16: Preterite Tense-morph:
4/4 (100.0%) tests pass (4/4 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 11 of 16: Subjunctive Mood-morph:
3/3 (100.0%) tests pass (2/3 (66.67%) match gold)

Corpus 12 of 16: Imperative-morph:
6/6 (100.0%) tests pass (6/6 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 13 of 16: Adverbs-morph:
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 14 of 16: Postpositions-morph:
5/5 (100.0%) tests pass (5/5 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 15 of 16: Conjunctions-morph:
3/3 (100.0%) tests pass (3/3 (100.0%) match gold)

Corpus 16 of 16: commonwords-morph:
14/14 (100.0%) tests pass (0/14 (0.0%) match gold)

==== Not Yet Implemented ====

Verb negation — Present tense negation prefix nê- and prohibitive prefix me- are not implemented.

Copula and verb of existence — These irregular verb paradigms (beno, esto, etc.) are not yet in the transducer.

Periphrastic verb forms — Perfect, past perfect, imperfect, and progressive tenses are not implemented.

Coverage note — By adding ra<post>, u<cnjcoo>, zî<post>, and rê<post> to the transducer, coverage went from 23.94% to 29.42%.

=== Evaluation ===

==== Stem counts (excluding inflection, punctuation, and anonymous lexicons) ====
Nouns: 11 (8 masc + 3 fem)

Adjectives: 2 (1 consonant-final + 1 vowel-final)

Determiners: 4

Personal pronouns: 6

Interrogative pronouns: 5

Verbs: 6 (1 present + 1 preterite + 1 subjunctive + 3 imperative)

Adverbs: 5

Postpositions: 8

Conjunctions: 4

Total: 51 stems

==== Coverage ====
The initial coverage is 23.94%. By adding ra<post>, u<cnjcoo>, zî<post>, and rê<post>, the improved coverage is 29.42%.

==== Test Analysis ====

===== What tests still don't work =====

All tests are passed.
76/76 pass (all corpora)

For commonwords-morph-*.txt files, 14/14 commonwords passed.

==== List of Top Unknown Words ====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Count !! Unknown Word
|-
| 48 || ke
|-
| 45 || bi
|-
| 33 || de
|-
| 29 || xo
|-
| 25 || Îsayî
|-
| 19 || va
|-
| 16 || cı
|-
| 16 || Fatose
|-
| 13 || xwu
|-
| 12 || ki
|-
| 10 || kerd
|-
| 9 || ser
|-
| 9 || da
|-
| 9 || Ali
|-
| 8 || vêrdi
|-
| 7 || mi
|-
| 7 || eno
|-
| 7 || biye
|-
| 7 || beno
|-
| 7 || Homayî
|}

== Generator Evaluation ==

=== Initial evaluation of morphological generation ===

At the start of generator work (tagged as "analyser"), the generation test results were:

{| class="wikitable"
! Corpus !! Pass !! Gold Match
|-
| Gender-gen || 4/4 || 3/4
|-
| Number-gen || 3/3 || 2/3
|-
| Case and Specificity-gen || 5/5 || 5/5
|-
| Indefinite Suffix-gen || 4/4 || 2/4
|-
| Personal Pronouns-gen || 6/6 || 6/6
|-
| Interrogative Pronouns-gen || 5/5 || 5/5
|-
| Descriptive Adjectives-gen || 5/5 || 5/5
|-
| (Demonstrative) Determiners-gen || 4/4 || 4/4
|-
| Present Tense-gen || 4/4 || 4/4
|-
| Preterite Tense-gen || 4/4 || 4/4
|-
| Subjunctive Mood-gen || 4/4 || 4/4
|-
| Imperative-gen || 6/6 || 6/6
|-
| Adverbs-gen || 5/5 || 5/5
|-
| Postpositions-gen || 5/5 || 5/5
|-
| Conjunctions-gen || 3/3 || 3/3
|-
! Total !! 72/72 !! 68/72 (94.4%)
|}

Initial coverage on the basic corpus (''zza.corpus.basic.txt''): 29.42%

=== Final evaluation of morphological generation ===

To improve coverage, we tested against a larger corpus (''zza.bible_luke1.txt'', 25,537 tokens) and added high-frequency unknown stems. The added stems include common postpositions (''ra'', ''do'', ''ci''), conjunctions (''ke'', ''de'', ''bi'', ''u''), adverbs (''wina'', ''her'', ''ey''), pronouns (''xwu'', ''înan'', ''mi''), and nouns (''ser'', ''yew'').

==== Twol rules ====
0 twol rules were added. The morpheme boundary deletion (''>'':0) was already handled in the Alphabet section of the twol file. No morphophonological alternations required additional rules, as Zazaki morphology in our implementation uses clean suffixation.

==== Updated stem counts ====
Nouns: 13

Adjectives: 2

Determiners: 4

Personal pronouns: 9

Interrogative pronouns: 5

Verbs: 6

Adverbs: 8

Postpositions: 9

Conjunctions: 7

Total: 63 stems

==== Final generation test results ====

72/72 tests pass, 68/72 match gold (94.4%). Results are unchanged from initial evaluation since no twol rules were modified.

==== Coverage ====

{| class="wikitable"
! Corpus !! Coverage
|-
| ''zza.corpus.basic.txt'' (initial) || 23.94%
|-
| ''zza.corpus.basic.txt'' (after adding common words) || 29.42%
|-
| ''zza.bible_luke1.txt'' (initial) || 27.24%
|-
| ''zza.bible_luke1.txt'' (after adding common words) || 40.92%
|}

==== Top unknown words (''zza.bible_luke1.txt'') ====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Count !! Unknown Word
|-
| 152 || Îsayî
|-
| 121 || va
|-
| 99 || şima
|-
| 74 || kerd
|-
| 72 || ci
|-
| 70 || Homayî
|-
| 61 || Îsa
|-
| 55 || da
|-
| 51 || yê
|-
| 50 || enê
|-
| 45 || bikerê
|-
| 40 || eno
|-
| 39 || bî
|-
| 34 || yo
|-
| 31 || verê
|-
| 29 || seba
|-
| 29 || kesî
|-
| 28 || ê
|-
| 27 || kerdêne
|-
| 27 || dî
|}

[[Category:Sp26_Transducers]]
[[Category:Zazaki]]

RGyalrong (Situ)/Grammar

2026-02-21T04:36:34Z

Slu4:

Situ rGyalrong is a polysynthetic language with its parts of speech hard to differentiate, especially under eurocentric grammar categories. It is clear that Jiaomuzu Situ has pronouns. The line between nouns and verbs, however, is rather vague.

== Number Marker==
There are two basic number-markers/number-affixes in Situ, which are dual marker ''-ndj'' and plural marker ''-nio'' (or ''-nii'').
A number-marker can act as an enclitic of a pronoun. The same morphological change can also be interpreted as adding a suffix to the pronoun and result in a fused pronominal form. Both ways of glossing are shown in Prins' 2016 book on the grammar of Situ rGyalrong.
Mumber-markers are wildly used to mark nouns. Enclitics and actual number words are mutually exclusive in marking quantities. Notably that the number categories do not overlap in meaning; this includes the dual marker, the plural marker, and numbers.
=== Dual Enclitics ===
* {{morphTest|ta{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+ndj{{tag|num}}{{tag|du}}|detandj}} 'two books'
* {{morphTest|kena{{tag|n}}+ndj{{tag|num}}{{tag|du}}|kenandj}} 'two dogs'
* {{morphTest|nde{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}+ndj{{tag|num}}{{tag|du}}|ndendj}} 'those two'

* {{morphTest|nenjo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|nenjo}} 2SG
* {{morphTest|nenjo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}+ndj{{tag|num}}{{tag|du}}|nenjondj}} 2DU
=== Plural Enclitics ===
* {{morphTest|gashigdeg{{tag|n}}+nio{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}}|gashigdegnio}} 'brothers'
* {{morphTest|jnder{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+nio{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}}|dejndernio}} 'fears'
* {{morphTest|kormaŋ{{tag|n}}+nio{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}}|kormaŋnio}} 'people'

* {{morphTest|wujo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|wujo}} 3SG
* {{morphTest|wujo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pers}}+nio{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}}|wujonio}} 3DU

== Contrast, Indefinite, and Prominence Marker ==
The contrast marker ''de'' only occurs when a speaker wants to convey information about the specific relation of certain objects to their environment. It cannot occur independently.

* {{morphTest|wu{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+niegju{{tag|n}}+de{{tag|mod}}|wuniegjude}} 'His hatred (in contrast with other qualities)'
* {{morphTest|senem{{tag|n}}+de{{tag|mod}}+nio{{tag|num}}{{tag|pl}}|senemdenio}} 'bSod.nams and his people, in contrast with others)'
* {{morphTest|beshnu{{tag|n}}+de{{tag|mod}}|beshnude}} 'today (in contrast with other days)'

The contrast marker can also mark referential in some cases:

* {{morphTest|ta{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|deta}} {{morphTest|gesam{{tag|num}}+de{{tag|mod}}|gesamde}} 'The three books'
* {{morphTest|rmu{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+de{{tag|mod}}|dermude}} 'The person'
* {{morphTest|jeʼm{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+de{{tag|mod}}dejeʼmde}} 'The house'

On the other hand, since there are no nouns that are inherently definite or indefinite, marker ''gi'' in sentences can (often) be used to mark indefiniteness. It is derived from numerals ''kerek'' and ''kergi'', meaning 'one'. The indefiniteness marker only occurs directly after the constituent it modifies and cannot be placed in the middle of a syntactical unit.

* {{morphTest|za{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|deza}} {{morphTest|wu{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+vog{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|wevog}} {{morphTest|gdu{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_stat}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|gegdugi}} 'a man with a big belly'

Indefiniteness cannot be marked on non-singular nouns; in certain cases, it is a number marker itself, similar to 'a' in English. A unmarked noun in Situ rGyalrong suggests unspecified number marking, which makes it the most general expression.

* {{morphTest|ta{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|deta}} 'book/books'
* {{morphTest|ta{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|detagi}} 'a book; one book'
* {{morphTest|gejoʼ{{tag|n}}|gejoʼ}} 'sheep'
* {{morphTest|gejoʼ{{tag|n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|gejoʼgi}} 'a sheep; one sheep'

Bare nouns in Situ are also able to carry referential meaning from the context.
* {{morphTest|nde{{tag|adj}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}}|nde}} {{morphTest|njileg{{tag|n}}|njilek}} '(that) the stone'
Therefore, 'gi' is used to introduce a new person or topic or to express the speaker's lack of clarity about a fact.
* {{morphTest|nde{{tag|adj}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}}|nde}} {{morphTest|njileg{{tag|n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|njilekgi}} '(that) a stone'
* {{morphTest|rmu{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|dermugi}} 'a person'
* {{morphTest|magme{{tag|n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|magmegi}} 'a soldier (or something'
* {{morphTest|shindehu{{tag|n}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|shindehugi}} 'somewhere in Chengdu'
'gi' can even mark quantifiers.
* {{morphTest|zji{{tag|num}}|zji}} {{morphTest|qaʼm{{tag|qnt}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|qaʼmgi}} 'about ten'

{{comment|prominence marker undone}}

== Personal Pronouns ==
=== First Person Pronouns ===
First person pronouns in Situ rGyalrong have unique dual and plural markings, and they are distinguished between inclusive and exclusive. First person pronouns has a special set of dual and plurals.
* {{morphTest|ŋa{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|ŋa}}
* {{morphTest|zhejo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|incl}}|zhejo}}
* {{morphTest|zheno{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|excl}}|zheno}}
* {{morphTest|yijo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|incl}}|yijo}}
* {{morphTest|yino{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|excl}}|yino}}
There is also the emphatic first person singular pronoun:
* {{morphTest|ŋejo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|tn}}|ŋejo}}

=== Third Person Pronouns ===
Situ rGyalrong has seven unique expressions of third person, each with nuanced differences semantically. The most commonly used, indigenous third person singular pronoun is ''wujo''.
* {{morphTest|wujo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}|wujo}}
Many rGyalrong variations, as well as Jiaomuzu Situ, also borrowed the word for ʼpersonʼ in TIbetan, ''mi'', as a third person pronoun.
* {{morphTest|me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}|me}}
Situ rGyalrong has a condescending, despective, or humilific pronoun. It is usually used when the speaker wants to distinguish himself positively form the referred third person. A <emph> contrast marker can form enclitic with the pronoun the emphesize it. It is also sometimes used to refer to a child.
* {{morphTest|wuna{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|desp}}|wuna}}
* {{morphTest|wuna{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|desp}}{{tag|emph}}|wunade}}
''gereg'', derived from the numeral work for 'one', ''gereg'', can be used to refer a third person that is out of the normal scope--for example, when the person is out of the speaker's sight. In such circumstances, the pronoun hosts the enclitic, ''gi'', who marks indefinite.
* {{morphTest|gereg{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|obv}}+gi{{tag|det}}{{tag|idf}}|gereggi}}
The form expressing the most intimate relationship is ''Yargo''. ''Yargo'' is rooted from the word ''dargobso'', meaning ʼfriendʼ, and marked with first person plural marker ''y''. ''Yargo'' is also preferred in storytelling.
* {{morphTest|yargo{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|intm}}|yargo}}
Finally, zheʼ and nde are pronouns for non-personal objects. Generally, zheʼ means 'this', and nde means 'that'.
* {{morphTest|zheʼ{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|zheʼ}}
* {{morphTest|nde{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|nde}}
zheʼ and nde can also be in the adjectival position.
* {{morphTest|zheʼ{{tag|adj}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}}|zheʼ}} 'This'
* {{morphTest|nde{{tag|adj}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|sg}}|nde}} 'That'

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person
!
! singular<br /><sg>
! singular pronominal prefix<br /><sg> <gen>
! singular suffix
! singular honor suffix
! dual<br /><du>
! dual pronominal prefix<br /><du> <gen>
! dual suffix
! plural<br /><pl>
! plural pronominal prefix<br /><pl> <gen>
! plural suffix
|-
| <pers> <p1>
| inclusive <incl>
|
|
|
|
| zhejo
| zh-
| -dj
| yijo, yiji
| y-
| -y
|-
|
| exclusive <excl>
| ŋa
| ŋ-
| -ŋ
| -yn
| zheno
|
|
| yino, yini
|
|
|-
|
| emphatic <tn>
| ŋejo
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| <pers> <p2>
|
| nenjo
| n-
| -n, -w
| -yn
| nenjo=ndj
| (nenjo)ndj-
| -ndj
| nenjo=nio, nenji=nio
| ni-
| -yn
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ndje=njo
|
|
| niin=jo
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| enii=ndj
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| <pers> <p3>
| Original with reflexivity
| wujo
| w-
| -w
|
| wujo=ndj
| wujondj-
| -ndj
| wujo=nio,wuji=nio
| wujini-
| -yn
|-
|
| Loaned without reflexivity
| me
|
|
|
| me=ndj
|
|
| me=nio
|
|
|-
|
| Despective or humilific <desp>
| wuna
|
|
|
| wuna=ndj
|
|
| wuna=nio
|
|
|-
|
| Unfamiliar with referent / outside normal frame / between in-group and out-group <obv>
| kerek
|
|
|
| kerek=ndj
|
|
| kerek=nio
|
|
|-
|
| Intimate / story telling <intm>
| jargo
|
|
|
| jargo=ndj
|
|
| jargo=nio
|
|
|-
| <dem> <p3>
|
| zheʼ
|
|
|
| zheʼ=ndj
|
|
| zheʼ=nio
|
|
|-
|
|
| nde
|
|
|
| nde=ndj
|
|
| nde=nio
|
|
|}

There exists a much more complicated underlying pronoun system that each phoneme represents certain meaning. The underlying system can explain grammatical phenomena, such as the different pronoun choice for intransitive and transitive verbs, and nuanced phonological decisions like the drop of certain vowel in certain circumstances. Due to its complicity, this part will be left with ambiguity until such ambiguity starts affecting the result of language computation.

== Nouns and Noun Phrases ==
""
In Jiaomuzu Situ, there are four nominal prefixes: "da-", "de-", "k-", and "g-". Nouns can exist without prefixes or with one of the nominal prefixes. For noun roots prefixed with "da-" and "de-", when forming genitives, the consonant /t/ would be replaced with the consonants from the pronominal prefix. Therefore, in the tag system, we consider "k-" and "g-" part of the noun roots and the prefixation of "da-" and "de-" productive, tagged as <prt_n>. Based on the Prins' book we refer to, there are no phonological constraints found for the distribution for "da-" and "de-", but there are indeed inherent semantic difference. The specific distribution of "da-" and "de-" might need to be hard-coded.

* {{morphTest|wo{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dawo}} 'head'
* {{morphTest|rmoʼg{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|darmoʼg}} 'thunder'
* {{morphTest|ba{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|daba}} 'father'
* {{morphTest|ndog{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dendog}} 'beak'
* {{morphTest|rnog{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dernog}} 'brains'
* {{morphTest|rshba{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dershba}} 'axe'

"k-" and "g-" are often used with animals. Some nouns, as well as numerous nouns have no prefix at all:

* {{morphTest|korog{{tag|n}}|korog}} 'ant'
* {{morphTest|kena{{tag|n}}|kena}} 'dog (a loan word from Tibetan that has a prefix)''
* {{morphTest|gewas{{tag|n}}|gewas}} 'fly'
* {{morphTest|gembuʼ{{tag|n}}|gembuʼ}} 'calf'
* {{morphTest|bazhu{{tag|n}}|bazhu}} 'bird'
* {{morphTest|zndi{{tag|n}}|zndi}} 'stone wall'

Some words can occur with or without prefix. Most loan words from Chinese and Tibetan do not have prefix, but there are exceptions:

* {{morphTest|koŋmbe{{tag|n}}|koŋmbe}} 'viscera'
* {{morphTest|koŋmbe{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dekoŋmbe}} 'viscera'
* {{morphTest|rŋamoŋ{{tag|n}}|rŋamoŋ}} 'camel (from "rnga-mong")''
* {{morphTest|rgammbe{{tag|n}}|rgammbe}} 'box (from "sgam")'
* {{morphTest|jag{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|dejag}} 'time (from "zhag")'
* {{morphTest|tshaʼ{{tag|n}}|tshaʼ}} 'tea (from "chá")'
* {{morphTest|{{tag|n}}|hajdsoʼ}} 'chili pepper (from "làjiāo")'

== Genitives ==

Pronominal markings are employed to form genitives. The first term in a genitives is the possessor while the second term, the noun on which the head marking appears, is the head and the possessed.

* {{morphTest|mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|mendoʼg}} 'flower'

* {{morphTest|ŋa{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|ŋamendoʼg}} 'my flower'
* {{morphTest|ne{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|nemendoʼg}} 'your flower'
* {{morphTest|wu{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|wumendoʼg}} 'his/her flower'
* {{morphTest|zhe{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|zhemendoʼg}} 'our flower'
* {{morphTest|ndj{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|ndjemendoʼg}} 'your flower'
{{comment|here an extra /ə/ is added after the pronominal prefix}}
* {{morphTest|wujondj{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|wujondjemendoʼg}} 'their flower'
{{comment|here too}}
* {{morphTest|yi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|yimendoʼg}} 'our flower'
* {{morphTest|nii{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|niimendoʼg}} 'your flower'
* {{morphTest|wujinii{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+mendoʼg{{tag|n}}|wujiniimendoʼg}} 'their flower'

For nouns prefixed with "da-" and "de-", it is more complicated:
* {{morphTest|sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|desgruʼ}} 'body'

* {{morphTest|ŋa{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|ŋesgruʼ}} 'my body'
* {{morphTest|ne{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|nesgruʼ}} 'your body'
* {{morphTest|wu{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|wesgruʼ}} 'his/her body'
* {{morphTest|zhe{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|zhesgruʼ}} 'our body'
* {{morphTest|ndj{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|ndjesgruʼ}} 'your body'
* {{morphTest|wujondj{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|du}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|wujondjesgruʼ}} 'their body'
* {{morphTest|yi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|yesgruʼ}} 'our body'
* {{morphTest|nii{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|niesgruʼ}} 'your body'
* {{morphTest|wujinii{{tag|prn}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|gen}}+sgruʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}|wujiniesgruʼ}} 'their body'

== Verbs and Verb Phrases ==
=== Nominalisation of Verbs ===
Nominalisation processes are common and exceedingly productive in Jiaomuzu Situ rGyalrong. Verbs consist of an infinitive marker ''ga-'' or ''ge'' and a verb stem. Most stative verbs have ''ge-'' as their infinitive prefix, while most dynamic verbs are prefixed by ''ga-''. Compound verbs are common, consisting of a noun and one of a handful of compounding verbs.

*{{morphTest|nefaŋnbyen{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_stat}}|genefaŋnbyen}} 'convenient'
*{{morphTest|jnder{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_stat}}|gejnder}} 'scared'
*{{morphTest|jnder{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|gajnder}} 'fear'

Verbs can be derived from nouns by replacing the nominal prefixes with 'ga' or 'ge', but the process is rather derivational.

{{comment|Make sure you're not including derivational forms here. -JNW}}

Compound verbs can be, on the other hand, productively, formed with a light verb and a noun:

* {{morphTest|jenhwa{{tag|n}}+leʼd{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|jenhwagaleʼd}} 'make a phone call'
* {{morphTest|bobo{{tag|n}}+va{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|bobogava}} 'kiss'
* {{morphTest|rngaʼ{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+va{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|darngaʼgava}} 'dance'
* {{morphTest|ta{{tag|n}}{{tag|prt_n}}+va{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|detagava}} 'read, study'

Frequently there is a compound form as well as a heavy verb form expressing the same meaning. The heavy verb is basically a noun prefixed with process verb marker ''ga-'' and often a voice marker:

* {{morphTest|va{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}+rngaʼ{{tag|n}}|ganerngaʼ}} 'dance'
* {{morphTest|leʼt{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}+scog{{tag|n}}|garascok}} 'write (lit. hit letter)'
* {{morphTest|va{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}+loser{{tag|n}}|ganeloser}} 'celebrate New Year'

{{comment|I don't understand this. Why is there an infinitive of a noun? What is a heavy verb, and where is it in the example? Also, are you sure this isn't derivational? -JNW Yes the productivity of this part is questionable -LYX}}

Wei (1993: 31) and Jacques (2008) mention another nominalisation marker, ''de-'', which turns verbs into nominals with the meaning 'the act of …'. This can also be understood as the equivalent of the commonly existing nominal prefix "de-". Therefore, they are all tagged as <prt_n>

*{{morphTest|shmo{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_d kyn}}|gashmo}} 'steal'
*{{morphTest|shmo{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_n}}|deshmo}} 'the act of stealing'
*{{morphTest|ŋa{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+shmo{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_n}}|ŋeshmo}} 'the stealing of my property'
{{comment|Here, the question is weather the stem "shmo" should be tagged as a noun or a verb.}}

Verb stems nominolised by ''ga-'' can also form genitives:
*{{morphTest|w{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|gen}}+nempshu{{tag|v}}{{tag|prt_dyn}}|wuganempshu}} 'his acquaintance'

Lastly, the nominaliser ''sa-'' is an oblique marker, deriving nouns that denote place or instrument of the corresponding verbs.

=== Tense ad Aspect ===

Jiaomuzu Situ has both tense and aspect; tense and aspect markers share one slot in the verb phrase. It distinguishes between universal tense, absolute tense and relative tense. Aspect marking occurs on the verb for past progress with marker ''na-'', while past imperfective is marked by ''do-''. Present imperfective has ''ge-'' for first and second person, with ''ŋa-'' for third. Terminative aspect is marked by ''medo-'' and ''mada-''. A special case is marking for impending action or prospective aspect with viewpoint marker ''ve-''.

The Jiaomuzu dialects have regular as well as irregular verbs. Regular verbs display the same stem whatever the marking for tense, aspect and mood. Irregular verbs have more than one stem. For Jiaomuzu dialect there are three stems found; an irregular verb uses at most two distinct stems, either Stem 1 and Stem 2 or Stem 1 and Stem 3. Stem 1 appears in non-past situations, which is normally the stem that appears in the citation form of the verb. For example, Stem 1 of the verb ''galeʼt'', 'hit' is ''-leʼt''; for the verb ''gavi'', 'come', is -''vi''. Many verbs have a different form that occurs in past tense situations, Stem 2. Often verbs distinguish between Stem 1 and Stem 2 by means of an alternation of glottal stops. If Stem 1 has a glottal stop, Stem 2 does not and vice versa. A verb in this category is gasriʼ, 'bind'. The prefix ''ge-'' in the tense marker for the past tense forms:

Suffix marking is derived from the personal pronouns and contains mainly, though not exclusively, information on number. Prefixes marking person are to a large extent fused, and they contain information on the relationship between subject and object as well as on person hierarchy. The Jiaomuzu animacy hierarchy is as follows:
1 > 2 > 3 human > 3 animate > 3 inanimate

For orientation marking, Jiaomuzu Situ uses three contrasting sets of directions, vertically up and down, up and down river, and towards the mountain or towards the river.

Evidentiality can also be marked in Jiaomuzu Situ. The neutral situation, in which the speaker is an eye witness to the action or event, goes unmarked. Information that is not first-hand knowledge is marked by ''a-''. The second instance of evidentiality is marked by ''na'', which marks knowledge or information acquired by the speaker through personal experience though not necessarily by being an eyewitness to a certain situation. This observation marker is versatile; it signals reliability based on an outside authority.

The viewpoint is marked by ''shi-'' and ''ve-''. They indicate the direction in space in which a person or object is moving at the time of an action, from the perspective of the speaker.

Jiaomuzu Situ marks voice in the narrow sense of the word by prefixing ''ŋo-'' to the verb stem, forming passives. Reciprocity is marked by ''ŋa-'' or ''wa-'', usually in combination with a reduplicated stem. Canonical reflexivity is marked by ''mbja-'' while ''ne'' marks emphatic reflexivity as well as autobenefactive.

Causality markers ''sa-/se-'' and ''sha-/she-'' mark indirect causativity, while ''ra-''re-'' and ''va-/ve-'' mark direct causatives.

Volition is marked by ''me-''. The markers ''na-'' and ''ne-'' form applicatives by adding objects. The impersonalising marker ''ŋa-'' signals the defocusing of the causal participant of an event.

Jiaomuzu Situ, finally, has mood as one of their essential marking elements. Mood includes negation, interrogative marking, different kinds of imperatives, real conditionals and a variety of irrealis constructions.
* Negation uses ''ma-'' for imperfective situations, ''ji'' in perfective frames and ''me-'' for prohibitives. Polar questions are formed by prefixing a verb with ''me-''.

Verbs can be derived from nouns or from other verbs, often with the help of voice markers which are inserted before the verb stem.

[[Category:sp26_GrammarDocumentation]]

Chabacano/Grammar

2026-02-20T15:54:25Z

Jcruz2: Created page with "Category:Spring 2026"

[[Category:Spring 2026]]

Kickapoo/Grammar

2026-02-17T16:09:52Z

Yli11:

== Nouns ==

=== Animate Nouns ===

Animate nouns end in -a which is the marker for ‘ANIMATE.’

*In order for a noun to be considered animate, it must be organic, i.e., it must have to be perceived as a living entity. Also, sacred ceremonial objects, including musical instruments, that don’t usually meet the normal animacy requirements can be considered animate (Whittaker, 2006:2). For the most part, nouns are considered animate if they can move on their own.
** {{morphTest|anemoh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|anemoha}} - (dog)
** {{morphTest|pesia{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|pesiaa}} - (cat)
** {{morphTest|wiiskenoh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|wiiskenoha}} - (bird)
** {{morphTest|ahkhkw{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|ahkhkwa}} - (drum)
** {{morphTest|aathan{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|aathana}} - (Jade stone)
** {{morphTest|miikona{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}|miikonaa}} - (feather)

''Note: The last three nouns are traditionally considered animate by the Kickapoo language when used in a ceremonial way.''

=== Inanimate Nouns ===
*Inanimate nouns end in -i, which is the marker for ‘INANIMATE.’ Inanimate nouns are considered to be inorganic nonliving entities that do not move on their own, breathe, and are not found in a ceremony.
** {{morphTest|aikaachikan{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}|aikaachikani}} - (pencil.pen.camera)
** {{morphTest|menwaachikan{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}|menwaachikani}} - (cup)
** {{morphTest|pakachikan{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}|pakachikani}} - (hammer)
** {{morphTest|makatheh{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}|makathehi}} - (shoe)
** {{morphTest|motaahi{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}|motaahii}} - (bottle)

=== Noun Inflection (Posession) ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 70%; text-align: left;"
! Prefix
! Person/Number
! Gloss
|-
| ''ne-''
| ‘1SG’
| ‘mine’
|-
| ''ke-''
| ‘2SG’
| ‘your’
|-
| ''o-''
| ‘3SG’
| ‘his/hers’
|-
| ''ne-enaan-''
| ‘1PL.EXCL’
| ‘ours. EXCL’
|-
| ''ke-enaan-''
| ‘1PL.INCL’
| ‘ours. INCL’
|-
| ''ke-waa-''
| ‘2PL’
| ‘your. PL’
|-
| ''o-waa-''
| ‘3PL’
| ‘their’
|}

''Source:'' Voorhis (1974:29).

** {{morphTest|makatheh{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|px1sg}}|nemakathehi}} - (my shoe)
** {{morphTest|makatheh{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|px2sg}}|kemakathehi}} - (your shoe)
** {{morphTest|makatheh{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|px3sg}}|omakathehi}} - (his/her shoe)
** {{morphTest|okometh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|px1sg}}|nokometha}} - (my grandma)
** {{morphTest|okometh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|px2sg}}|kokometha}} - (your grandma)

=== Plural Nouns ===
Kickapoo nouns can be either singular or plural. The suffixes used to form the plural for animate nouns differ from the suffixes used to form plural inanimate nouns.

* Singular animate nouns end in ''-a''
* Plural animate nouns end in ''-ki''
* Singular inanimate nouns end in ''-i''
* Plural inanimate nouns end in ''-ani''
==== Animate Nouns ====
** {{morphTest|kwiyetheeh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|pl}}|kwiyetheehaki}} - (boys)
** {{morphTest|okometh{{tag|n}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|pl}}|okomathaki}} - (grandmas)

==== Inanimate Nouns ====
** {{morphTest|aikaachikan{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|pl}}|aikaachikanani}} - (pencils.pens.cameras)
** {{morphTest|motaahi{{tag|n}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|pl}}|motaahiani}} - (bottles)

== Verb ==

=== Gender ===

==== Person ====

*There are fourteen pronominal categories in Kickapoo. Various pronominal affixes are used to distinguish these pronominal categories.
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nemeskothi}} - (I am red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}|kemeskothi}} - (you are red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|meskothiwa}} - (s/he is red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_4sg}}|meskothiniani}} - (4th person s/he is red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|s_3sg}}|meskwaawi}} - (it [inanimate] is red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|s_4sg}}|meskwaanii}} - (4th person it [inanimate] is red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_3pl}}|meskothiwaki}} - (they are red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_4pl}}|meskothiniahi}} - (4th person they are red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|s_3pl}}|meskwaani}} - (they [inanimate] are red)
** {{morphTest|meskw{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|nn}}{{tag|s_4pl}}|meskwaaniiani}} - (4th person [inanimate][pl] are red)

=== Locative ===

*The locative enclitic [-eki] can suffice in describing that an object is ‘in/at/on’ an object.
** {{morphTest|atoopoon{{tag|n}}{{tag|loc}}|atoopooneki}} - (in/at/on the table)

=== Tense ===

*There are four tenses in Kickapoo, the future tense, and the first, second, and third aorists.
==== Future Tense ====

*The future tense is marked by the prefix iih– which is attached immediately before the verb root.
** {{morphTest|namatho{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|niihnamatho}} - (I will stand)
** {{morphTest|nimi{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|fut}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|iihnimiaani}} - (I will dance)

==== First Aorist ====

The first aorist is used to denote actions that have begun at the time of speaking and generally equate the English present and past tense. The first aorist expresses a meaning equivalent of the present progressive, present, and past tenses in English:
** {{morphTest|namatho{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|aor_1}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nenamatho}} - (I'm standing, I stand, I stood)

==== Second Aorist ====

For the second aorist, actions are considered to have been begun but remain incomplete at the time of speaking. The second aorist is marked with a prefix eeh–.
** {{morphTest|namatho{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|aor_2}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|eehnamathoaani}} - (when I was standing)

==== Third Aorist ====

The third aorist denotes actions that are considered completed at the time of speaking and is
marked with a vowel change.

** {{morphTest|meno{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|aor_3}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|meenoaani}} - (when I had finished drinking)

=== Aspect ===

Aspect describes the internal temporal shape of events or states’ (Payne 1997, 238). Aspect in Kickapoo is shown thru affixes. These affixes show the internal temporal structure of situations which includes the start or conclusion of an event, frequency, habituality, and the efforts or desire for the agent/subject to bring the event to fruition.

* {{morphTest|pooni{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nepoonimayo}} - (I stop/stopping/stopped crying)
* {{morphTest|weepi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|neweepimayo}} - (I start/am starting to/started crying)
* {{morphTest|kaski{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekaskimayo}} - (I'm able to cry)
* {{morphTest|kochi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekochimayo}} - (I'm trying to cry)
* {{morphTest|tasi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|netasimayo}} - (I'm there crying)
* {{morphTest|naachi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nenaachimayo}} - (I stopped to cry)
* {{morphTest|maa{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nemaamayo}} - (I'm always crying)
* {{morphTest|tanwi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|netanwimayo}} - (I'm unable to cry)
* {{morphTest|nahi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nenahimayo}} - (I know how to/am good at crying)
* {{morphTest|kiisi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekiisimayo}} - (I finished crying)
* {{morphTest|toski{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|netoskimayo}} - (I just now started crying)
* {{morphTest|kii{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekiimayo}} - (I'm crying around)
* {{morphTest|kechi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekechimayo}} - (I'm crying hard)
* {{morphTest|nesi{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nenesimayo}} - (I crying so much)
* {{morphTest|katai{{tag|vaux}}+mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|nekataimayo}} - (I almost cried)

=== Mode ===

** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|cnj}}|mayoani}} conjunct - (when you were crying)
** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|iter}}|mayoaanini}} iterative - (whenever you cry)
** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|sbj}}|mayoane}} subjunctive - (if you cry/if you’re crying/if you cried)
** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|pot}}|mayohkapa}} potential - (you should cry)
** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|imp}}|mayono}} imperative - (cry!)
** {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}{{tag|proh}}|mayokani}} prohibitive - (you might cry)

=== Negation ===

*In Kickapoo, negation is expressed through the morphemes <aakwi>, <pai>, <awita>, and
<poni>, <kaata>. Each of the ten modes described in the previous section requires just one of these
morphemes in order to express negation.

** {{morphTest|aakwi{{tag|adv}}{{tag|cnj}}|aakwi}} {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|mayoaani}} conjunct - (I'm not crying, I didn't cry, I don't cry)
** {{morphTest|aakwi{{tag|adv}}{{tag|iter}}|aakwi}} {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|mayoaanini}} iterative - (I not even crying, I didn't even cry, I don't ever cry)
** {{morphTest|pai{{tag|adv}}{{tag|sbj}}+siethi{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|paisiethiaane}} subjunctive - (if I'm not hungry)
** {{morphTest|awita{{tag|adv}}{{tag|pot}}|awita}} {{morphTest|siethi{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_1sg}}|siethihkaaha}} potential - (when I'm not hungry)
** {{morphTest|poni{{tag|adv}}{{tag|imp}}|poni}} {{morphTest|siethi{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}|siethino}} imperative - (stop being hungry!)
** {{morphTest|kaata{{tag|adv}}{{tag|proh}}|kaata}} {{morphTest|mayo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|aa}}{{tag|s_2sg}}|mayokani}} prohibitive - (don't be hungry!)

[[Category:Sp26 GrammarDocumentation]]
[[Category:Kickapoo]]

Kernowek/Grammar

2026-02-17T16:05:26Z

Bhollan2:

[[Category:sp26_GrammarDocumentation]]
[[category:Kernowek]]
== Kernowek Nouns ==
In Cornish, plural morphology on nouns denote that there is more than one of something.

There are three "numbers" in Cornish, singular, plural and occasionally Dual.

=== Regular plurals ===
Regular plurals are formed with the addition of (in order of frequency) «ow», «yow», «yon», «ion», «i», «edh», «eth», «en».
* Inanimate objects will most likely take the suffix «ow»:
** {{morphTest|treth{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|trethow}} (Beach)
** {{morphTest|lyver{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|lyverow}} (Book)
** {{morphTest|daras{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|darasow}} (Door)
* Otherwise options include «yow»:
** {{morphTest|elin{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|elinyow}} (Elbow - Specifically multiple elbows that are NOT a pair)
** {{morphTest|gweus{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|gweusyow}} (Lip)
** {{morphTest|eglos{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|eglosyow}} (Church)
* «yon» Seems like animals like this declension:
** {{morphTest|er{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|eryon}} (Eagle)
** {{morphTest|lew{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|lewyon}} (Lion)

=== Regular suffix with stem alternations ===
* If a noun ends in a «er» and takes the, the «yon» ending it often morphs into -oryon:
** {{morphTest|Kiger{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|Kigoryon}} (butcher)
** {{morphTest|Deviser{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|Devisoryon}} (inventor)
* In some masculine (but not all) nouns that end in «a» and take the «s», the «a» is replaced by «ys»:
** {{morphTest|oula{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|oulys}} (Owl)
** {{morphTest|apa{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|apys}} (Ape)

=== No suffix ===
* Some plural forms are denoted only by a stem alternation; these are not predictable:
** {{morphTest|men{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|meyn}} (Stone)
** {{morphTest|margh{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|mergh}} (Horse)
** {{morphTest|horn{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|hern}} (Horse-Shoe)

=== Singulative ===
* Nouns that are already plural become singulative by adding «en» and can then be repluralized by adding «now»:
** {{morphTest|eth{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|ethen}} Scents
** {{morphTest|ester{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|esteren}} Oysters
** {{morphTest|beler{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}|beleren}} cress

== Kernowek Verbs ==
Many cornish nouns can be verb-ified like in english

Verbs ending -i
==== Indicative - Present or Future ====
« gwari» (Play/Act) is an «i»-vowel verb, with the stem «Gwar»-:
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|gwarav}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|gwarydh}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|gwar}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|gwaryn}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|gwarowgh}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|gwarons}}
* {{morphTest|gwari{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|gwarir}}

« rewi» (Freeze) is an «i»-vowel verb, with the stem «Rew»-:

* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|rewav}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|rewydh}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|rew}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|rewyn}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|rewowgh}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|rewons}}
* {{morphTest|rewi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|rewir}}

« teudhi» (Thaw/Dissolve/Melt) is an «i»-vowel verb, with the stem «Teudh»-:

* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|teudhav}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|teudhydh}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|teudh}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|teudhyn}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|teudhowgh}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|teudhons}}
* {{morphTest|teudhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|teudhir}}

Verbs ending -a

==== Indicative - Present or Future ====
« eva» (Drink/Absorb) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Ev»-:

* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|evav}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|evydh}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|yv}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|evyn}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|evowgh}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|evons}}
* {{morphTest|eva{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|evir}}

« desegha» (Dry Up) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Desegh»-:

* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|deseghav}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|deseghydh}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|desegh}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|deseghyn}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|deseghowgh}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|deseghons}}
* {{morphTest|desegha{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|deseghir}}

« Tomma» (Warm Up) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Tomm»-:

* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|tommav}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|tommydh}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|tomm}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|tommyn}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|tommowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|tommons}}
* {{morphTest|Tomma{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|tommir}}

« Rastella» (Grill) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Rastell»-:

* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|rastel}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|rastellydh}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|rastell}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|rastellyn}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|rastellowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|rastellons}}
* {{morphTest|Rastella{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|rastellir}}

Verbs ending -ya

==== Indicative - Present or Future ====
« settya» (Set/Place) is an «ya»-vowel verb, with the stem «sett»-:
(VERY similar to -a verbs)

* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|settyav}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|settydh}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|sett}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|settyn}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|settyowgh}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|settyons}}
* {{morphTest|settya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|settir}}

« Fugya» (Forge) is an «ya»-vowel verb, with the stem «fug»-:

* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|fugyav}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|fugydh}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|fug}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|fugyn}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|fugyowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|fugyons}}
* {{morphTest|Fugya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|impers}}|fugir}}

Verbs ending -a

==== Indicative - preterite ====
« Darlesa» (Broadcast) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Darles»-:

* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|darlesis}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|darlessys}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|darlesas}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|darlessyn}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|darlessowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|darlessons}}
* {{morphTest|Darlesa{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|darlesas}}

« Godra» (Milk) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Godr»-:
(It appears the bimeme rs isn't valid outside of loan words though I did find 2 listed exceptions)

* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|godris}}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|god'sys }}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|godras}}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|god'syn}}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|god'sowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|god'sons}}
* {{morphTest|Godra{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|godras}}

« Nivera» (Count) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Niver»-:

* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|niveris}}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|niversys }}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|niveras}}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|niversyn}}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|niversowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|niversons}}
* {{morphTest|Nivera{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|niveras}}

Verbs ending -i

==== Indicative - preterite ====

« Kegi» (Cook) is an «i»-vowel verb, with the stem «Keg»-:

* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|kegis}}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|kegsys }}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|kogas}}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|kegsyn}}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|kegsowgh}}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|kogsons}}
* {{morphTest|Kegi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|kegas}}

« anedhi» (Inhabit) is an «i»-vowel verb, with the stem «anedh»-:

* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|anedhis}}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|anedhsys }}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|anedhas}}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|anedhsyn}}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|anedhsowgh}}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|anedhsons}}
* {{morphTest|anedhi{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|anedhas}}

Verbs ending -el

==== Indicative - preterite ====

« densel» (Crunch) is an «el»-vowel verb, with the stem «dens»-:

* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|densis}}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|denssys }}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|densis}}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|denssyn}}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|denssowgh}}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|danssons}}
* {{morphTest|densel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|densis}}

« lewsel» (Loosen) is an «el»-vowel verb, with the stem «lews»-:

* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|lewsis}}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|lewssys }}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|lewsis}}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|lewssyn}}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|lewssowgh}}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|lowssons}}
* {{morphTest|lewsel{{tag|v}}{{tag|ifi}}{{tag|impers}}|lewsis}}

Verbs ending -a

==== Indicative - Imperfect ====

« taga» (Choke) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «tag»-:

* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|tagen}}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|tages }}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|taga}}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|tagen}}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|tagewgh}}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|tagens}}
* {{morphTest|taga{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|impers}}|tegys}}

« Rekna» (Count) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Rekn»-:

* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|reknen}}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|reknes }}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|rekna}}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|reknen}}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|reknewgh}}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|reknens}}
* {{morphTest|Rekna{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|impers}}|reknys}}

« Devera» (Drip) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Dever»-:

* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|deveren}}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|deveres }}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|devera}}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|deveren}}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|deverewgh}}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|deverens}}
* {{morphTest|Devera{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|impers}}|deverys}}

Verbs ending -ya

==== Indicative - Imperfect ====

« Lostya» (Queue) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Lost»-:

* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|lostyen}}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|lostyes }}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|lostya}}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|lostyen}}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|lostyewgh}}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|lostyens}}
* {{morphTest|Lostya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|impers}}|lostys}}

« Unya» (Unite) is an «a»-vowel verb, with the stem «Un»-:

* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|unyen}}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|unyes }}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|unya}}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|unyen}}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|unyewgh}}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|pl}}|unyens}}
* {{morphTest|Unya{{tag|v}}{{tag|pii}}{{tag|impers}}|unys}}

Mandinka/Grammar

2026-02-17T16:05:06Z

Mmakhsu1: /* Related Auxiliaries */

This page highlights some important features of Mandinka grammar.

== Verbs ==

=== Gerunds ===
For transitive verbs without an object, gerunds take on "roo" at the end of the verb.

* {{morphTest|domo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|domoroo}}, to eat, eating
* {{morphTest|loo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|looroo}}, to build, building
* {{morphTest|saŋ{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|sandiroo}}, to buy, buying
* {{morphTest|waafi{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|waafiroo}}, to sell, selling
* {{morphTest|suuñaa{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|suuñaaroo}}, to steal, stealing
* {{morphTest|kantandi{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}|kantandiroo}}, to wait, waiting

For transitive verbs with an object, gerunds take on "o" at the end of the verb.

* {{morphTest|domo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}{{tag|obj}}|domoo}}, to eat, eating
* {{morphTest|loo{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}{{tag|obj}}|loo}}, to build, building
* {{morphTest|saŋ{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}{{tag|obj}}|saŋo}}, to buy, buying
* {{morphTest|waafi{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}{{tag|obj}}|waafoo}}, to sell, selling
* {{morphTest|miŋ{{tag|v}}{{tag|tv}}{{tag|ger}}{{tag|obj}}|miŋo}}, to drink, drinking

For intransitive verbs, gerunds take on "o" at the end of the verb as well.

* {{morphTest|díyaamu{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|ger}}|diyaamoo}}, speak/speaking
* {{morphTest|taama{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|ger}}|taamoo}}, to walk/walking
* {{morphTest|kuu{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|ger}}|kuuwoo}}, to bathe/bathing
* {{morphTest|siinoo{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|ger}}|siinoo}}, to sleep/sleeping
* {{morphTest|bori{{tag|v}}{{tag|iv}}{{tag|ger}}|boroo}}, to run/running

=== Infinitives ===
* {{morphTest|díyaamu{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|díyaamu}}, speak/speaking
* {{morphTest|taama{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|taama}}, to walk/walking
* {{morphTest|kuu{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|kuu}}, to bathe/bathing
* {{morphTest|siinoo{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|siinoo}}, to sleep/sleeping
* {{morphTest|bori{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|bori}}, to run/running
* {{morphTest|tiiñaa{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|tiiñaa}}, to destroy/destroying
* {{morphTest|kanju{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|kanju}}, to defend/defending
* {{morphTest|kantandi{{tag|v}}{{tag|inf}}|kantandi}}, to wait, waiting

=== Negative Auxiliaries ===
* {{morphTest|be{{tag|vbmod}}|be}}, is/was
* {{morphTest|be{{tag|vbmod}}{{tag|neg}}|te}}, is not/was not
* {{morphTest|ñanta{{tag|vbmod}}|ñanta}}, should
* {{morphTest|ñanta{{tag|vbmod}}{{tag|neg}}|ñaŋ}}, shouldn´t
* {{morphTest|ye{{tag|vbmod}}|ye}}, did
* {{morphTest|ye{{tag|vbmod}}{{tag|neg}}|maŋ}}, did not

=== Related Auxiliaries ===
* {{morphTest|la{{tag|post}}|la}}, is/will/shall
* {{morphTest|kaŋ{{tag|vaux}}|kaŋ}}, -ing
* {{morphTest|ke{{tag|vbdo}}|ke}}, do

== Adverbs==
In Mandinka, adverbs are classified as either general or specific. Specific adverbs are applicable only to specific verbs and/or adjectives, whereas general adverbs apply to a number of verbs and/or adjectives. For general adjectives, the typical format is to add "ke" to the end of the verb.
* {{morphTest|tariyaa{{tag|adj}}{{tag|advl}}|tariyaake}}, quick/quickly
* {{morphTest|kende{{tag|adj}}{{tag|advl}}|kendeke}}, very well
* {{morphTest|bete{{tag|adj}}{{tag|advl}}|beteke}}, very well
* {{morphTest|jawu{{tag|adj}}{{tag|advl}}|jawuke}}, severely
* {{morphTest|banban{{tag|adj}}{{tag|advl}}|banbanke}}, tightly

==Nouns==

=== Plurals ===
Nouns in Mandinka take "lu" at the end to form plurals.
* {{morphTest|woo{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|pl}}|woolu}} , that/those
* {{morphTest|kalaa{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|kalaalu}}, a pen/pens
* {{morphTest|motoo{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|motoolu}}, a vehicle/vehicles
* {{morphTest|suloo{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|suloolu}}, a monkey/monkeys
* {{morphTest|musoo{{tag|n}}{{tag|pl}}|musoolu}}, a woman/women

[[Category: Mandinka]]
[[Category: sp26_GrammarDocumentation]]

Kernewek/Grammar

2026-02-17T16:04:04Z

Bhollan2: Blanked the page

Kernewok/Grammar

2026-02-17T16:01:33Z

Bhollan2: Blanked the page

Zazaki/Grammar

2026-02-17T15:13:57Z

Xyuan2: /* Subjunctive Mood */

== Parts of Speech ==

=== Nouns ===

Nouns in Zazaki are inflected for case, number, and specificity. In addition they have gender. The cases are direct, oblique, locative, and vocative. The genders are masculine and feminine. And the specificities are specific, nonspecific, and indefinite.

==== Gender ====
All nouns are either masculine or feminine, and most nouns have inherent gender. However, some nominal roots have variable gender, i.e. they may function as either masculine or feminine nouns. On most nominal roots gender is not overtly marked, but is apparent from agreement with verbs and adjectives. The grammatical gender of animate nouns reflects the biological sex of the referent. Inanimate nouns have invariable grammatical gender. Homophones exist that are distinguished by gender, e.g. ''la'' is masculine for 'thread' but feminine for 'river'.

* {{morphTest|camêrd{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|camêrd}} "man"
* {{morphTest|ceni{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|ceni}} "woman"
* {{morphTest|pirtok{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|pirtok}} "book"
* {{morphTest|mar{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|mar}} "snake"

==== Number ====
Nouns are unmarked for the singular and marked with the unstressed suffix ''-i'' in the plural. The unmarked noun also serves as the generic form.

* {{morphTest|roj{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dir}}|roji}} "days"
* {{morphTest|pirtok{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dir}}|pirtoki}} "books"
* {{morphTest|panj roj{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|dir}}|panj roj-i}} "five days"

==== Case and Specificity ====
Zazaki has two primary formal cases: ''direct'' (morphologically unmarked) and ''oblique'' (morphologically marked). There is also a remnant ''locative'' case on some feminine nouns and a ''vocative'' for a few kinship terms. Oblique forms are only distinguished from direct forms when the noun is specific in reference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case Inflections
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| ∅ || ∅ || -i
|-
! Oblique
| -i || -er || -an
|-
! Kinship OBL.
| -r || -r || -ran
|-
! Locative
| ∅ || -ı || ∅
|}

* {{morphTest|bergir{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|bergiri}} "stallion (OBL)"
* {{morphTest|mang{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|obl}}|mangan}} "cows (OBL)"
* {{morphTest|laj{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|laj}} "son (DIR)"
* {{morphTest|laj{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|laji}} "son (OBL)"
* {{morphTest|dew{{tag|n}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|loc}}|dewı}} "village (LOC)"

==== Indefinite Suffix ====
Nouns may take an unstressed indefinite suffix ''-ê'' (or ''-ên'' before other suffixes) if they are indefinite. At times the suffix is accompanied by the number ''one'' (''jew'' (m) or ''jû'' (f)). At other times the number ''one'' acts as an indefinite article with no accompanying suffix.

* {{morphTest|roj{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}}|rojê}} "a day"
* {{morphTest|merdım{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}}|merdımêndo}} "a man (with ezafe)"
* {{morphTest|çay{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}}|çayênda}} "a tea (with ezafe)"
* {{morphTest|zalım{{tag|n}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|ind}}|zalımê}} "an overlord"

=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns in Zazaki are of five basic types: deictic, personal, anaphoric, extrasystemic, and interrogative. Pronouns are inflected for person, number, gender, and case.

==== Personal Pronouns ====
Personal pronouns distinguish three persons, two numbers (singular and plural), and two cases (Direct and Oblique). Third-person pronouns overlap with the deictic system and additionally distinguish gender and near/far deixis. Case is not distinguished in the plural of 1st and 2nd person.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal pronouns
! !! Singular DIR !! Singular OBL !! Plural
|-
! 1st person
| {{morphTest|ez{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|ez}} || {{morphTest|ez{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|mın}} || {{morphTest|ma{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|pl}}|ma}}
|-
! 2nd person
| {{morphTest|tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|dir}}|tı}} || {{morphTest|tı{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|obl}}|to}} || {{morphTest|şıma{{tag|prn}}{{tag|pers}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|pl}}|şıma}}
|}

Third-person personal pronouns are identical to the deictic pronouns (see [[Zazaki/Grammar#Gender|Nouns: Gender section]] for the near/far deictic forms such as ''no/o'' for masculine and ''na/a'' for feminine).

==== Interrogative Pronouns ====
Only the interrogative ''kam'' 'who/which' is inflected, taking the masculine oblique case ending ''-i''. The others (''koti'' 'where', ''sênin'' 'how', ''çıçi'' 'what', etc.) do not vary with case.

* {{morphTest|kam{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|dir}}|kam}} "who; which"
* {{morphTest|koti{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|dir}}|koti}} "where"
* {{morphTest|kınga{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|dir}}|kınga}} "when"
* {{morphTest|çend{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|dir}}|çend}} "how many"
* {{morphTest|sênin{{tag|prn}}{{tag|itg}}{{tag|dir}}|sênin}} "how"

=== Adjectives ===

There are three types of adjectives: descriptive adjectives, deictic adjectives, and numerals. The descriptive adjective is inflected only for gender and number to agree with the noun it modifies. The deictic adjective is inflected for case and deixis in addition to gender and number. The numerals are not inflected.

==== Descriptive Adjectives ====
The descriptive adjective agrees in number and gender with the head noun of the NP which it modifies. Masculine singular is unmarked, feminine singular takes ''-ı'', and plural takes ''-i''.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjectival inflections
! !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Masculine
| -∅ || rowspan="2" | -i
|-
! Feminine
| -ı
|}

* {{morphTest|gırd{{tag|adj}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|gırd}} "large (m.sg)"
* {{morphTest|gırd{{tag|adj}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}|gırdı}} "large (f.sg)"
* {{morphTest|gırd{{tag|adj}}{{tag|pl}}|gırdi}} "large (pl)"
* {{morphTest|sıpe{{tag|adj}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|sıpe}} "white (m.sg)"
* {{morphTest|sıpe{{tag|adj}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}|sıpê}} "white (f.sg)"

=== (Demonstrative) Determiners ===
(Demonstrative) Determiners always precede a noun and distinguish near versus far deixis. In the plural, only the near/far distinction is maintained; case distinction is lost on the adjective (though maintained on the noun). The case distinction is also lost for the feminine singular.

* {{morphTest|no{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dir}}|no}} "this"
* {{morphTest|no{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|obl}}|nê}} "this"
* {{morphTest|no{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|f}}|na}} "this"
* {{morphTest|o{{tag|det}}{{tag|dem}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|dir}}|o}} "that"

=== Verbs ===
The Zazaki verb is inflected for tense, aspect, mood, person, number, and gender. Each verb has three stems: present, subjunctive, and past. The gerund serves as the citation form. Personal endings distinguish person, number, and gender (in 2nd/3rd person singular).

==== Present Tense ====
Formed by adding personal endings to the present stem (which ends in ''-en-''). All plural forms share the same ending ''-ê''. Paradigm of 'mow' (stem ''çinen-''):

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present tense of ''çin'' 'mow'
! Person !! Form
|-
! 1st sg.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|çinenan}}
|-
! 3rd sg. masc.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|çineno}}
|-
! 3rd sg. fem.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}|çinena}}
|-
! all plurals
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|pres}}{{tag|pl}}|çinenê}}
|}

==== Preterite Tense ====
Based on the past stem. The 3rd person masculine singular is unmarked. Paradigm of 'pull' (past stem ''ant-''):

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Preterite tense of ''anc'' 'pull'
! Person !! Form
|-
! 1st sg.
| {{morphTest|anc{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|antan}}
|-
! 3rd sg. masc.
| {{morphTest|anc{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}{{tag|sg}}|ant}}
|-
! 3rd sg. fem.
| {{morphTest|anc{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}{{tag|sg}}|antı}}
|-
! all plurals
| {{morphTest|anc{{tag|v}}{{tag|past}}{{tag|pl}}|anti}}
|}

==== Subjunctive Mood ====
Based on the subjunctive stem with the prefix ''bı-''. Gender is not distinguished. Used in subordinate clauses and to form the future tense.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Subjunctive of ''çin'' 'mow'
! Person !! Form
|-
! 1st sg.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p1}}{{tag|sg}}|bıçinan}}
|-
! 2nd sg.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|sg}}|bıçinê}}
|-
! 3rd sg.
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|sg}}|bıçino}}
|-
! all plurals
| {{morphTest|çin{{tag|v}}{{tag|subj}}{{tag|pl}}|bıçinê}}
|}

==== Imperative ====
Uses the subjunctive stem with prefix ''bı-'' and suffix ''-ı'' (singular) or ''-ê'' (plural).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperative of ''şım'' 'drink'
! Singular !! Plural
|-
| {{morphTest|şım{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|sg}}|bışımı}} || {{morphTest|şım{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|pl}}|bışımê}}
|-
| {{morphTest|wan{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|sg}}|bûwanı}} || {{morphTest|wan{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|pl}}|bûwanê}}
|-
| {{morphTest|omor{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|sg}}|omorı}} || {{morphTest|omor{{tag|v}}{{tag|imp}}{{tag|pl}}|omorê}}
|}

=== Particles ===
Particles are uninflected words. In Zazaki they include adverbs, postpositions, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

==== Adverbs ====
* {{morphTest|tım{{tag|adv}}|tım}} "always"
* {{morphTest|pêt{{tag|adv}}|pêt}} "fast"
* {{morphTest|bol{{tag|adv}}|bol}} "very"
* {{morphTest|berey{{tag|adv}}|berey}} "late"
* {{morphTest|'tayn{{tag|adv}}|'tayn}} "late"

==== Postpositions ====
Postpositions are of two kinds: those that require the oblique case on the preceding NP (e.g. ''myan'' 'among', ''het'' 'chez', ''sero'' 'on') and those that do not (e.g. ''dı'' 'in', ''zi'' 'also').
* {{morphTest|myan{{tag|post}}|myan}} "between, among"
* {{morphTest|sero{{tag|post}}|sero}} "on"
* {{morphTest|zere{{tag|post}}|zere}} "inside"
* {{morphTest|ver{{tag|post}}|ver}} "in front of"
* {{morphTest|pey{{tag|post}}|pey}} "behind"

==== Conjunctions ====
* {{morphTest|û{{tag|cnjcoo}}|û}} "and"
* {{morphTest|ya{{tag|cnjcoo}}|ya}} "or"
* {{morphTest|wa{{tag|cnjcoo}}|wa}} "so that"

[[Category:sp26_GrammarDocumentation]]
[[category:Zazaki]]