Eastern Burushaski/Language
Contents
Demonstrative Pronouns
| Demonstrative pronoun | human (m or f) | non-human concrete | non-human abstract/amorphous |
|---|---|---|---|
| this | kʰine<prn><dem><prx><sg><mf> ↔ kʰine | guse<prn><dem><sg><clx> ↔ guse | gut̯e <prn><dem><sg><cly> ↔ gut̯e |
| that | ine<prn><dem><dst><sg><mf> ↔ ine | ise<prn><dem><dst><sg><clx> ↔ ise | it̯e<prn><dem><dst><sg><cly> ↔ it̯e |
| these | kʰuwe <prn><dem><prx><pl><mf> ↔ kʰuwe | guce<prn><dem><prx><pl><clx> ↔ guce | guke <prn><dem><prx><pl><cly> ↔ guke |
| those | uwe <prn><dem><dst><pl><mf> ↔ uwe | ice<prn><dem><dst><pl><clx> ↔ ice | ike<prn><dem><dst><pl><cly> ↔ ike |
note: <mf> is used for the class of nouns that are human, and can be either male or female, while <clx> is used for non-human concrete and <cly> is used for the non-human abstract/amorphous noun class.
Reduplication
Reduplication is very productive in Burushaski, and can be used in a number of ways.
Partial Reduplication
Partial reduplication is only used in casual conversation. It most often applies to nouns, though Yoshioka claims that it can also be used on phrases and even clauses (p. 169). They are not clear as to the semantics of partial reduplication, and don't give any direct translations of any of their examples. Munshi's examples, on the other hand, have translations, and give a sense of a frequentative/iterative.
- haralt̯ cʰu-cʰur manimi "It drizzled"
- cʰur "drop"
- cʰur<n><redp> ↔ cʰu-cʰur
- haralt̯ ča-čar manimi "It rained heavily"
- čar "pour"
- čar<n><redp> ↔ ča-čar
- giyaase ǰi-ǰir et̯imi "The baby cried loudly"
- ǰir "cry"
- ǰir<n><redp> ↔ ǰi-ǰir
- hilese galt̯ar d̪a-d̪al et̯imi "They boy dragged the tree branch"
- d̪al "drag"
- d̪al<n><redp> ↔ d̪a-d̪al
- in d̪a-d̪ar imanimi "He shivered"
- d̪ar "shake"
- d̪ar<n><redp> ↔ d̪a-d̪ar
Full Reduplication
Full reduplication is done "without any phonological modification, such as phoneme alternation, vowel lengthening, phoneme augmentation, and so forth." (Yoshioka 2012:166) Yoshioka describes full reduplication as adding emphasis, and reduplicated words of other parts of speech often become adverbs.
| Monadic | Reduplicated | Tagged |
|---|---|---|
| ǰotišo "small" | ǰotišo-ǰotišo "fairly small" | ǰotišo<adj><redf> ↔ ǰotišo-ǰotišo |
| thala "slow" | thala-thala "gradually" | thala<adv><redf> ↔ thala-thala |
| kaa "with" | kaa-kaa "close together" | kaa<adj><redf> ↔ kaa-kaa |
Notably, reduplication can also happen across a conjunction
| loto "naked" | loto-ke-loto "no cap on head" (lit. "naked and naked") |
| čʰu "naked" | čʰu-ke-čʰu "bare feet" (lit. "naked and naked") |
(wasn't sure how to tag these...)
Verb stems
Burushaski verbs are highly inflected, but verbs stems often have only two forms: a "base stem" for perfective tenses (e.g. simple past, present perfect) and a "derived stem" for imperfective tenses (e.g. future, present progressive) (Munshi in progress: 58). Examples with the verb 'to run' also from Munshi.
- Perfective stem gaarc-
- u gaarcuman "They ran" (Simple Past)
- gaarc<v><iv><past><actv><ind><p3><pl> ↔ gaarcuman
- u gaarcam "They had run" (Past Perfect)
- gaarc<v><iv><past><pfct><actv><ind><p3><pl> ↔ gaarcam
- u gaarcuman "They ran" (Simple Past)
- Imperfective stem gaarš-
- u gaaršuman "They will run" (Future)
- gaarš<v><iv><fti><actv><p3><pl> ↔ gaaršuman
- u gaaršaan "They run" (Present Progressive)
- gaarš<v><iv><pres><prog><actv><p3><pl> ↔ gaaršaan
- u gaaršume baan "They have been running" (Present Perfect Continuous)
- [not sure how to tag the periphrastic -- have to investigate the participle-ish thing]
- u gaaršam "They used to run" (Past Progressive)
- gaarš<v><iv><past><prog><actv><p3><pl> ↔ gaaršume
- u gaaršuman "They will run" (Future)
Causatives
Burushaski can form causatives in three ways, increasing the valence of the verb by one.
- Null derivation (just adding another pronominal prefix)
- sabrina gučʰamo "Sabrina slept"
- gučʰa<v><iv><past><actv><ind><p3><f><sg> ↔ gučʰamo
- saliime sabrina mogučami "Saleem put Sabrina to sleep"
- gučʰa<v><tv><past><actv><ind><p3><m><sg><p3><f><sg> ↔ mogučʰami
- no explanation of the change in aspiration -- may be a typo in source, or related to stress shift
- sabrina gučʰamo "Sabrina slept"
- Lengthening of vowel of object (theme) prefix
- sabrinaa keek d̪esmanumo "Sabrina made the cake"
- sman<v><tv><past><actv><ind><p3><f><sg><p3><xy> ↔ d̪esmanumo
- Don't know if keek is an X or Y class word
- karime sabrina keek d̪umoosmanimi "Karim caused Sabrina to make the cake"
- sman<v><tv><past><actv><ind><p3><m><sg><p3><f><sg><p3><xy> ↔ d̪umoosmanimi
- Don't know if keek is an X or Y class word
- sabrinaa keek d̪esmanumo "Sabrina made the cake"
- Prefix [s] (intransitives only)
- hiles iwarimi "The boy is tired"
- war<v><iv><past><actv><ind><p3><sg> ↔ iwarimi
- ǰaa hiles esparam "I made the boy tired"
- war<v><tv><past><actv><ind><p1><sg><p3><sg> ↔ iwarimi
- hiles iwarimi "The boy is tired"
(not sure how to properly tag subject vs object agreement)
"To be" copula forms
| Present Tense | Past Tense | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||
| Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p1><sg> ↔ baa | p<cop><pres><ind><p1><sg><neg> ↔ apaa | b<cop><pres><ind><p1><pl> ↔ baan | p<cop><pres><ind><p1><pl><neg> ↔ apaan | b<cop><past><ind><p1><sg> ↔ bayam | p<cop><past><ind><p1><sg><neg> ↔ apayam | b<cop><past><ind><p1><pl> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><p1><pl><neg> ↔ apam |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p2><sg> ↔ baa | p<cop><pres><ind><p2><sg><neg> ↔ apaa | b<cop><pres><ind><p2><pl> ↔ baan | p<cop><pres><ind><p2><pl><neg> ↔ apaan | b<cop><past><ind><p2><sg> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><p2><sg><neg> ↔ apam | b<cop><past><ind><p2><pl> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><p2><pl><neg> ↔ apam |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><m> ↔ bai | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><m><neg> ↔ apai | b<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><m> ↔ baan | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><m><neg> ↔ apaan | b<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><m> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><ind><p3><sg><m><neg> ↔ apam | b<cop><past><ind><ind><p3><pl><m> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><m><neg> ↔ apam |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><f> ↔ bo | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><f><neg> ↔ apo | b<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><f> ↔ baan | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><f><neg> ↔ apaan | b<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><f> ↔ bom | p<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><f><neg> ↔ apom | b<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><f> ↔ bam | p<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><f><neg> ↔ apam |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><clx> ↔ bi | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><clx><neg> ↔ api | b<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><clx> ↔ biye | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><clx><neg> ↔ apiye | b<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><clx> ↔ bim | p<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><clx><neg> ↔ apim | b<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><clx> ↔ bim | p<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><clx><neg> ↔ apim |
| b<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><cly> ↔ bila | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><sg><cly><neg> ↔ api | b<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><cly> ↔ bica | p<cop><pres><ind><p3><pl><cly><neg> ↔ api | b<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><cly> ↔ bilum | p<cop><past><ind><p3><sg><cly><neg> ↔ apim | b<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><cly> ↔ bicum | p<cop><past><ind><p3><pl><cly><neg> ↔ apim |
Write summary of formation rules (see 3.1.2.4, p71 -- underlying form of negative is hypothesized ot be a, but has other unexplained forms)
(I think all the verbs in this chart need to be marked for mood -- here they would be indicative. Maybe you can find-and-replace it?)
Obligatory possession
Some nouns in Burushaski always appear with possessive markers. Yoshioka (36) cites Berger (1998a: 44), who says that there are about "150 substantives" in this class. (Yoshioka goes on to give examples that include nouns and prepositions, and it is not clear whether they count as "substantives.") Paradigms of possessed nouns are drawn from Munshi (in progress), because Yoshioka doesn't cite full forms.
Words fall into (at least) two paradigms of prefixes, apparently without semantic or phonological rationale. Yoshioka also identifies a third type of possessed nouns, which they claim only includes 5 nouns, whose prefixes they list are mostly long-vowel versions of the Type-II prefixes. Yoshioka also lists possessive endings for X and Y class words, which Munshi does not cite forms for.
| Pronominal prefixes of inherently possessed nouns | Type-I (e.g. -šak 'arm') | Type-II (e.g. -ċo 'same-gender sibling') | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SG | PL | SG | PL | |
| 1st | šak<n><typ1><px1sg> ↔ ašak | šak<n><typ1><px1pl> ↔ mišak | ċo<n><typ1><px1sg> ↔ aċo | ċo<n><typ1><px1pl> ↔ meċo |
| 2nd | šak<n><typ1><px2sg> ↔ gušak | šak<n><typ1><px2pl> ↔ mašak | ċo<n><typ1><px2sg> ↔ goċo | ċo<n><typ1><px2pl> ↔ maċo |
| 3rd (male) | šak<n><typ1><px3sgm> ↔ išak | šak<n><typ1><px3pl> ↔ ušak | ċo<n><typ1><px3sgm> ↔ eċo | xakin<n><typ1><px3pl> ↔ oċo |
| 3rd (female) | šak<n><typ1><px3sgm> ↔ mušak | ċo<n><typ1><px3sgm> ↔ moċo | ||
Numerals
Numerals are inflected for noun class (human, X, Y). For 1-3, there is a distinction between all three, but for 4-10, human and X class numerals are homophonous.
| Numerals | Human (M&F) | X | Y |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | hin<num><mf> ↔ hin | hin<num><clx> ↔ han | hin<num><cly> ↔ hik |
| 2 | alt̯an<num><mf> ↔ alt̯an | alt̯an<num><clx> ↔ alt̯a | alt̯an<num><cly> ↔ alt̯o |
| 3 | isken<num><mf> ↔ isken | isken<num><clx> ↔ usko | isken<num><cly> ↔ iski |
| 4 | walt̯o<num><mfclx> ↔ walt̯o | walt̯o<num><cly> ↔ walt̯i | |
| 5 | cʰund̪o<num><mfclx> ↔ cʰund̪o | cʰund̪o<num><cly> ↔ cʰind̪i | |
| 6 | mišind̪o<num><mfclx> ↔ mišind̪o | mišind̪o<num><cly> ↔ mišind̪i | |
| 7 | t̯ʰalo<num><mfclx> ↔ t̯ʰalo | t̯ʰalo<num><cly> ↔ t̯ʰale | |
| 8 | alt̯ambo<num><mfclx> ↔ alt̯ambo | alt̯ambo<num><cly> ↔ alt̯ambi | |
| 9 | hunčo<num><mfclx> ↔ hunčo | hunčo<num><cly> ↔ hunti | |
| 10 | t̯oorumo<num><mfclx> ↔ t̯oorumo | t̯oorumo<num><cly> ↔ t̯oorimi | |
(talk about above 10)
