Difference between revisions of "Biak/Grammar"
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This example indicates that the possessor is 1PL.EX (10th row) and the possessed is 3SG (first column): | This example indicates that the possessor is 1PL.EX (10th row) and the possessed is 3SG (first column): | ||
| − | {{morphTest|det{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag| | + | {{morphTest|det{{tag|det}}{{tag|pos}}{{tag|px1pl}}{{tag|pxex}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|spc}}|inkovedya}} |
This example indicates that the possessor is 3SG (3rd row) and the possessed is 3PL.AN (4th column): "vín anya vyesya" - "the woman's relatives'" | This example indicates that the possessor is 3SG (3rd row) and the possessed is 3PL.AN (4th column): "vín anya vyesya" - "the woman's relatives'" | ||
Revision as of 15:46, 12 March 2021
Contents
Word Classes
- Nouns
n - Verbs
v - Pronouns
prn - Adverbs
adv - Prepositions
pr - Interjections
ij - Numerals
num - Conjunctions
- Topic markers
- Exclamations
Note the absence of adjectives in Biak
Grammar Points
Verb number/person inflection
Verbs combine with pronomial subject affixes (mainly prefixes, a few infixes) that express number and person of the subject. In addition to singular and plural, Biak also has a dual and a paucal. For 1st person dual and plural, Biak also distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive. There are at least three ways to combine verbs with pronomial affixes, and this is mainly determined by the beginning of the verb stem.
CC-initial
Example: «srow» (meet)
srow<v><tv><p1><sg> ↔ yasrow
srow<v><tv><p2><sg> ↔ wasrow
srow<v><tv><p3><sg> ↔ isrow
srow<v><tv><p1><du><ex> ↔ nusrow
srow<v><tv><p1><du><inc> ↔ kusrow
srow<v><tv><p2><du> ↔ musrow
srow<v><tv><p3><du> ↔ susrow
srow<v><tv><p3><pc> ↔ skosrow
srow<v><tv><p1><pl><ex> ↔ nkosrow
srow<v><tv><p1><pl><inc> ↔ kosrow
srow<v><tv><p2><pl> ↔ mkosrow
srow<v><tv><p3><pl><an> ↔ sisrow
srow<v><tv><p3><pl><inan> ↔ nasrow
V-initial
Example: «arok» (be straight)
arok<v><iv><p1><sg> ↔ yarok
arok<v><iv><p2><sg> ↔ warok
arok<v><iv><p3><sg> ↔ darok
arok<v><iv><p1><du><ex> ↔ nuyarok
arok<v><iv><p1><du><inc> ↔ kuyarok
arok<v><iv><p2><du> ↔ muyarok
arok<v><iv><p3><du> ↔ suyarok
arok<v><iv><p3><pc> ↔ skarok
arok<v><iv><p1><pl><ex> ↔ nkarok
arok<v><iv><p1><pl><inc> ↔ karok
arok<v><iv><p2><pl> ↔ mkarok
arok<v><iv><p3><pl><an> ↔ sarok
arok<v><iv><p3><pl><inan> ↔ narok
CV-initial
Note that the pattern for CV-initial verbs is not so predictable. For some words, the inflection is determined lexically; for instance, «so» (throw) is inflected according to the CV-pattern, while «so» (follow) is inflected according to the CC-pattern.
Example: «so» (throw)
so<v><tv><p1><sg> ↔ yaso
so<v><tv><p2><sg> ↔ swo
so<v><tv><p3><sg> ↔ syo
so<v><tv><p1><du><ex> ↔ nuso
so<v><tv><p1><du><inc> ↔ kuso
so<v><tv><p2><du> ↔ muso
so<v><tv><p3><du> ↔ suso
so<v><tv><p3><pc> ↔ skoso
so<v><tv><p1><pl><ex> ↔ nkoso
so<v><tv><p1><pl><inc> ↔ koso
so<v><tv><p2><pl> ↔ mkoso
so<v><tv><p3><pl><an> ↔ siso
so<v><tv><p3><pl><inan> ↔ naso
Noun Specificity
Nonspecificity is used to refer to entities that do not yet exist in this world. It is marked by the use of nonspecific articles -o for singular and -no for plural.
yuk<n><nspc><sg> ↔ yuko
yuk<n><nspc><pl> ↔ yukno
Specificity is marked with pronominal articles attached to the end of a noun phrase.
They are closely related to free personal pronouns and pronominal affixes:
| free personal pronoun | pronominal article | |
|---|---|---|
| 1SG | aya | ?/=ya-i |
| 2SG | aw | aw-ya/=aw-i |
| 3SG | i | =ya/=i |
| 1DU.INC | ku | =ku-ya/=ku-i |
| 1DU.EX | nu | =nu-ya/=nu-i |
| 2DU | mu | =mu-ya/=mu-i |
| 3DU | su | =su-ya/=su-i |
| 3PC | sko | =sko-ya/=sko-i |
| 1PL.INC | ko | =ko-ya/=ko-i |
| 1PL.EX | inko | =inko-ya/inko-i |
| 2PL | mko | =mko-ya/mko-i |
| 3PL.AN | si | =s-ya/=s-i |
| 3PL.INAN | na | =na |
Wardo<n>+inko<prn><pers><p1><pl><ex><spc> ↔ Wardoinkoya
yuk<n>+i<prn><pers><p3><sg><spc> ↔ yukya
Givenness
Givenness is marked by «an», and the allomorph «nan». «an» is used if the preceding word ends in a consonant, while «nan» is used after vowels.
rum<n>+i<prn><pers><p3><sg><giv> ↔ rum anya
kpu<n>+i<prn><pers><p3><sg><giv> ↔ kpu anya
waw<n>+i<prn><pers><p3><sg><giv> ↔ waw anya
ikoi<n>+i<prn><pers><p3><sg><giv> ↔ ikoi nanya
Complex Articles
Biak has complex articles that can indicate givenness, number/gender/specificity, and (optionally) direction, demonstrative, and motion. For specificity, the «-i» ending is always used (for example, «mkoi» instead of «mkoya»). Givenness, which is indicated by «an» or «nan», is attached as a prefix. Direction, demonstrative, and motion are attached as suffixes, in that order.
Directionals
| directional | meaning |
|---|---|
| rum | in |
| ri | out |
| ra | sea, water |
| re | land |
| pon | front, east |
| pur | back, downriver |
| yas | up, upriver |
| vav | down |
| vun | middle |
| var | side |
Demonstratives
| demonstrative | meaning |
|---|---|
| ne | this |
| ya | that |
| wa | that over there |
Motion
| motion marker | meaning |
|---|---|
| ma | moving to Target = speaker |
| fa | moving to Target other than speaker |
| ra | moving away |
mko<prn><pers><p2><pl><spc><giv>+purya<det><dem>+fa<adv> ↔ nanmkoipuryafa (nan-mko-i-pur-ya-fa: GIV-2PL-SPC-back-that-to.there)
i<prn><pers><p3><sg><spc>+wa<det><dem>+ma<adv> ↔ iwama (i-wa-ma: 3SG.SPC-over.there)
i<prn><pers><p3><sg><spc>+yasya<det><dem> ↔ iyasya (i-yas-ya: 3SG.SPC-up-that)
i<prn><pers><p3><sg><spc>+raya<det><dem> ↔ iraya (i-ra-ya: 3SG.SPC-sea-that)
sko<prn><pers><p3><pc><spc><giv>+purwa<det><dem> ↔ anskopurwa (an-sko-pur-wa: GIV-3PC.SPC-back-over.there)
Possession (Alienable/Inalienable)
Biak makes a formal distinction between alienable and inalienable (mainly restricted to certain body parts, kinship terms, and locational nouns) possession.
Alienable Possession
The possessive pronominals consist of the possessive formative ve inflected for person, number, and gender of the possessor, and the article closing off related to the (person,) number, and gender of the possessed. This table illustrates the construction of possessive pronominals.
| Possessor↓ Possessum→ | SG | DU | PC | PL.AN | PL.INAN |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | (a)ye=d-i/=d-ya | (a)ye=su-ya/-i | (a)ye=sko-ya/-i | (a)ye=s-ya/-i | (a)ye=na |
| 2SG | be=d-i/=d-ya | be-=su-ya/-i | be=sko-ya/-i | be=s-ya/-i | be=na |
| 3SG | v<y>e=d-i/=d-ya | v<y>e=su-ya/-i | v<y>e =sko-ya/-i | v<y>e =s-ya/-i | v<y>e =na |
| 1DU.INC | ku-ve=d-i/=d-ya | ku-ve=su-ya/-i | ku-ve=sko-ya/-i | ku-ve=s-ya/-i | ku-ve=na |
| 1DU.EX | nu-ve=d-i/=d-ya | nu-ve=su-ya/-i | nu-ve=sko-ya/-i | nu-ve=s-ya/-i | nu-ve=na |
| 2DU | mu-ve=d-i/=d-ya | mu-ve=su-ya/-i | mu-ve=sko-ya/-i | mu-ve=s-ya/-i | mu-ve=na |
| 3DU | su-ve=d-i/=d-ya | su-ve=su-ya/-i | su-ve=sko-ya/-i | su-ve=s-ya/-i s | su-ve=na |
| 1PC | sko-ve=d-i/=d-ya | sko-ve=su-ya/-i | sko-ve=sko-ya/-i | sko-ve=s-ya/-i | sko-ve=na |
| 1PL.INC | ko-ve=d-i/=d-ya | ko-ve=su-ya/-i | ko-ve=sko-ya/-i | ko-ve=s-ya/-i | ko-ve=na |
| 1PL.EX | (i)nko-ve=d-i/=d-ya | (i)nko-ve=su-ya/-i | i (i)nko-ve=sko-ya/-i | (i)nko-ve=s-ya/-i | (i)nko-ve=na |
| 2PL | mko-ve=d-i/=d-ya | mko-ve=su-ya/-i | mko-ve=sko-ya/-i | mko-ve=s-ya/-i | mko-ve=na |
| 3PL.AN | se=d-i/=d-ya | se=su-ya/-i | se=sko-ya/-i | se=s-ya/-i | se=na |
| 3PL.INAN | nbe=d-i/d-ya | nbe=su-ya/-i | nbe=sko-ya/-i | nbe=s-ya/-i | nbe=na |
The following example indicates that the possessor is 1SG (first row) and the possessed is 3SG (first column): "my son"
det<det><pos><px1sg><sg><spc> ↔ yedya
An example with the possessor 1PC and the singular possessum:
det<det><pos><px1pc><sg><spc> ↔ skovedya
This example indicates that the possessor is 3S (3rd row) and the possessed is
3SG (1st column): "ikák anine snonsnon vyedya Kormsamba" - "This snake's name was Kormsamba."
det<det><pos><px3sg><sg><spc> ↔ vyedya
This example indicates that the possessor is 1PL.EX (10th row) and the possessed is 3SG (first column):
det<det><pos><px1pl><pxex><sg><spc> ↔ inkovedya
This example indicates that the possessor is 3SG (3rd row) and the possessed is 3PL.AN (4th column): "vín anya vyesya" - "the woman's relatives'"
det<det><pos><px3sg><pl><an><spc> ↔ vyesya
This example indicates that the possessor is 3SG (3rd row) and the possessed is DU (2nd column):
det<det><pos><px3sg><du><spc> ↔ vyesuya
Inalienable Possession
Inalienable morphology is found with kinship terms, several anatomy/body parts, locational nouns, and some nouns referring to a part of a whole. The alienable construction allows for both possessed-possessor and possessor-possessed order, whereas the inalienable form does not. The inalienable construction allows for the possessor-possessed order.
Inalienable can only be used as:
- The head of a compound where the second part specifies further. Examples of this are illustrated in the table.
- As participating in one of the paradigms for inalienable bodyparts. These paradigms relate to whether the anatomy parts appear in pairs. However, these concepts are not explored for brevity.
Included below is a section of Alienable nouns referring to bodyparts, formed on the basis of inalienable roots.
| Inalienable root | compound | refers to | meaning of second member as free word |
|---|---|---|---|
| we "leg" | wemin | entire leg | min = 'member of a group' |
| ↑ | wepur | knee | pur = 'back' |
| ↑ | wempin | toe | not attested |
| ↑ | wevam | downside of foot = sole | bám = 'wall', 'slope' |
| ↑ | webon | calf | bon = 'fruit','hill' |
| sne "belly area" | snewar | belly, between hips and ribs | wár = 'water' |
| ↑ | snepum | naval | pum = 'that which comes out' |
| sva "mouth" | svadon | the entire mouth | do = inside |
| ↑ | svardip | lip | not attested |
| mka "eye" | mkamor | area around eye, specifically eyeball | mor = 'seed', 'tuber' |
| ↑ | mkabir mka(bi)biren | eyelid | not attested |
| ↑ | mkabei | area directly above eye | bei = 'shell' |
All of the above compounds are alienable stems and can be used inalienable possessive construction. However, it cannot use the inalienable root as the head of an alienable construction. Note the following examples, both of which translate to "She was pregnant":
The following sentences are semantically equivalent. The first uses the compound snewar, and the second uses the formation of the alienable noun sneri for "her belly":
snewar<n> ↔ snewar
det<det><pos><p3><px3sg><spc> ↔ vyedya
ba<v><p3><sg> ↔ iba
sne<n><pos> ↔ sneri
ba<v><p3><sg> ↔ iba
Cannot do: Sne vyedya iba, which uses the inalienable root at the head of the alienable construction.
Notice the difference, the alienable construction does not apply to the second case.
Another example: wemin<n> ↔ wemin
Conjuctions
Below is a list of some of the common conjunctions (not comprehensive).
| Form | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ma | 'and' |
| kukr(u) | 'with','because' |
| inkukr(u) | 'because |
| (in)fa | 'so that' |
| ra | 'until' |
| rawo ~ rao | 'until' |
| rya/indya (=in+rya) | 'so' |
| vo | 'while' |
| voi | 'but' |
| imboi (=in+voi) | 'but |
| (in)(fa) + sama(+ ido) | 'so that' |
| (fa) + (in) sama(+ ido) | 'so that' |
| (in)fama | 'but','however' |
indya<cnjcoo> ↔ indya
indo<cnjsub> ↔ indo
ma<cnjcoo> ↔ ma
ra<cnjsub> ↔ ra
voi<cnjcoo> ↔ voi
Prepositions
| Form | Meaning as a preposition |
|---|---|
| ro | location,'at' |
| ra | 'along','over' |
| ve | 'to' |
| kukr | 'with' |
| snar | 'because of' |
| ker | 'from' |
| bur | 'from' |
| yov | 'to' |
kukr<pr> ↔ kukr
ker<pr> ↔ ker
bur<pr> ↔ bur
ro<pr> ↔ ro
snar<pr> ↔ snar
References
The main source we consulted was Biak, description of an Austronesian language of Papua. We also got some information from [1].
