Difference between revisions of "Kaingang/Grammar"
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* Kaingang doesn't mark definite nouns. However, Kaingang has an (optional, but to reduce ambiguity we will always add it) indefinite marker. | * Kaingang doesn't mark definite nouns. However, Kaingang has an (optional, but to reduce ambiguity we will always add it) indefinite marker. | ||
** jynhkén ''lizard'' | ** jynhkén ''lizard'' | ||
− | ** {{morphTest|jynhkén{{tag|n}}{{tag|def}}|jynhkén}} | + | ** {{morphTest|jynhkén{{tag|n}}{{tag|def}}|jynhkén}} '''the/a lizard''' |
− | ** {{morphTest|jynhkén{{tag|n}}{{tag|indef}}|jynhkén ũ}} | + | ** {{morphTest|jynhkén{{tag|n}}{{tag|indef}}|jynhkén ũ}} '''a lizard''' |
== Verbs == | == Verbs == |
Revision as of 15:05, 12 February 2019
Contents
Conjunctions
Common Conjunctions | |
---|---|
Kaingang | English |
ge ra | as so, even so |
hã jé | for this end |
hã kato | instead of this |
hã kỹ | because of this |
hã ra | but, on the contrary of |
hã ri | similar to |
hã to | instead of |
hã tugrĩn | because of this, for that |
hã tỹ | because of this, for that |
jarĩnmỹ | although |
jãvo | but, on the contrary of |
jo | but |
kỹ | therefore, for this end |
mũ ra | as so, even so |
mỹr’ | meanwhile |
Interjections
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Subject | ||
---|---|---|
Person | Singular | Plural |
1 | inh | ẽ |
2 | ã | ãjag |
3m | ti | ag |
3f | fi | fag |
Examples: Ti mynh fag His parents (lit: His mothers)
- Genderable nouns receive "suffixes" for pluralization and gender.
- Kanhgag<n><nf><sg> ↔ Kanhgag ti
- Kanhgag<n><f><sg> ↔ Kanhgag fi
- Kanhgag<n><nf><pl> ↔ Kanhgag ag
- Kanhgag<n><f><pl> ↔ Kanhgag fag
- Some irregulars such as mynh mother get pluralized into different words. Mynh fag parents
- mynh<n><nf><pl> ↔ mynh fag
Reflexive Pronouns
There are two reflexive pronouns that function as an object or possessive, but not as a subject or ergative.
Kaingang | type | English |
---|---|---|
jagnẽ | object and possessive pronoun: reciprocal | one another |
vẽnh | object pronoun: reflexive | of himself/of herself |
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstratives | ||
---|---|---|
Anaphoric (leftwards reference) | Exophoric close | Exophoric far |
ẽn | tag (this) | tã (that) (followed by circumstantial indicator) |
Interrogative Pronouns
Who | What | When |
---|---|---|
ū | ne | hẽ |
Ex. 1: Ū ne? who is it?
Ex. 2: Ne ne? what is it?
[Pronoun document, 378-379]
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
-ũ: Indefinite marker
Nouns
- Nouns take on different morphology based on whether they are agents, subjects, or objects. These markers appear at the end of the noun phrase:
- kẽnkẽr parrot
- kẽnkẽr<n><sub> ↔ kẽnkẽr vỹ
- kẽnkẽr<n><agent> ↔ kẽnkẽr tỹ
- kẽnkẽr<n><obj> ↔ kẽnkẽr
- Kaingang doesn't mark definite nouns. However, Kaingang has an (optional, but to reduce ambiguity we will always add it) indefinite marker.
- jynhkén lizard
- jynhkén<n><def> ↔ jynhkén the/a lizard
- jynhkén<n><indef> ↔ jynhkén ũ a lizard
Verbs
Verbs come in one of three classes: intransitive, transitive, and semi-transative. Semi-transitive verbs can only take objects with the help of a post-position. There is no morphology assigned to these three classes, they are instead "invisible" innate traits of the individual verb.
rinh to use, to carry
- rinh<v><tv><pl> ↔ rinh mũ
- rinh<v><tv><sg> ↔ rinh tĩ
Vocatives
Used to get someone's attention.
Markers
Aspect Markers
Perfective Aspect Markers
Imperfective Aspect Markers
Indicators of Circumstance
Modality Markers
Follows only verbs
Follows verbs, nouns, and other modality markers
Grammatical Mood Markers
Kaingang | Approximate Meaning |
---|---|
inhhã | ‘only, focus marker’ |
ge | ‘thus’ |
gé | ‘as well’ |
ha | ’emphatic now’ |
hã | ‘emphatic focus, assertive’ |
hẽ | ‘don't do!’ |
hẽ’ | ‘it can't be done!’ |
hur | ‘already’ |
huri | ‘already’ |
hỹn | ‘probably’ |
hỹn | ‘where?’ |
ker | ‘continued habitually, does not stop happening’ |
kur | ‘fast,quickly, hurriedly’ |
mỹr | ‘it's true, truthfully’ |
nẽji | ‘as I have heard, it is said’ |
sir | ‘thus, important information’ |
-' | ‘doubtedly, emphatic focus marker, assertive’ |
Noun Markers
Subject markers are used to define the topic or subject of a given sentence. They typically follow the subject in a sentence.
Kaingang | Approximate Meaning |
---|---|
jé | subject expects/anticipate the action, speaker desires the action |
mỹ | subject of a yes-no question |
ne | subject is origin of the action |
né | agent has feelings? (only in third-person) |
nỹ | subject is topic and contrasted with vỹ, subject shift/change |
pijé | subject does not do the action |
tóg | subject is agent |
tỹ | agent is ergative; topic marker |
vé | this subject does bad things |
vỹ | subject is topic |
[Dicionario PT-KG 159-160]