Difference between revisions of "Kaingang/Grammar"

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(Singular and Plural)
(Singular and Plural)
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If an action is done by a group, even if there are many objects or many agents, the singular form of the verb can be used.  
 
If an action is done by a group, even if there are many objects or many agents, the singular form of the verb can be used.  
 
 
The plural/singular of nouns can be specified by the use of demonstrative pronouns in the plural/singular form.
 
The plural/singular of nouns can be specified by the use of demonstrative pronouns in the plural/singular form.
  
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
There are some conjunctions that introduce sentences and or follow phrases, like the circumstance markers. The opinion markers hã and ge are used with certain circumstance markers to create other conjunctions.
 
There are some conjunctions that introduce sentences and or follow phrases, like the circumstance markers. The opinion markers hã and ge are used with certain circumstance markers to create other conjunctions.
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{|class="wikitable"
 
{|class="wikitable"
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|-
 
! Common Conjunctions
 
! Common Conjunctions
 
|-
 
|-
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|-
 
|-
 
| mỹr’ || meanwhile
 
| mỹr’ || meanwhile
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|-
 
|}
 
|}
  

Revision as of 23:02, 13 February 2019

Singular and Plural

Many nouns don't have a distinction between singular and plural. Plural isn't simply denoted by adding a marker, so plural forms are treated as separate words.

Plural in a verb indicates the action is done multiple times.

  • If it is a transitive verb, the action is repeated because the object is plural (object plurality will only be shown in the verb).
    • rĩnh<v><tv><pl> ↔ rĩnh (to carry many things)
    • rĩnh<v><tv}<tt style="background-color: #f9f9f9; font-size: 90%; color: #7a7a7a;"><<b style="color: black;">pl>}</b>></tt> ((a person) carrying many things)
    • rĩnh<v><tv><pl> ↔ rĩnh mũ ((many people) carrying many things)
  • If it is an intransitive verb, the action is either done by many agents or by the same agent many times.
    • te<v><iv><sg> ↔ te (to carry something)
    • te<v><iv><sg> ↔ te tĩ ((a person) carrying something)
    • te<v><iv><sg> ↔ te mũ ((many people) carrying something)

If an action is done by a group, even if there are many objects or many agents, the singular form of the verb can be used. The plural/singular of nouns can be specified by the use of demonstrative pronouns in the plural/singular form.

Conjunctions

There are some conjunctions that introduce sentences and or follow phrases, like the circumstance markers. The opinion markers hã and ge are used with certain circumstance markers to create other conjunctions.


{ ↔ - ! Common Conjunctions

"to call (ã)"
  • Certain verbs have different forms that require minute changing of the base verb. Not all verbs have different forms at all. Among the verbs that do have different forms, not all of them contain a distinct spelling for all the different forms. These forms exist independent of the transitivity of the verb. What form a verb takes depends on where the verb is located within the sentence. No categorization defaults to basic?[Dic KG-PT 163]
    • fãn "to harvest corn"
      • fãn<v><bas> ↔ fãn
      • fãn<v><v1> ↔ fã
      • fãn<v><v2> ↔ fa
      • fãn<v><v3> ↔ fãg
    • rĩnh "to carry (pl.)"
      • rĩnh<v><bas> ↔ rĩnh
      • rĩnh<v><v1> ↔ rĩ
      • rĩnh<v><v2> ↔ rĩnh
      • rĩnh<v><v3> ↔ rĩg

The verb can then be followed by three more markers:

  • Modality Markers
    • sór "to want"
    • ẽgfãn "harvest corn"
      • ēgfãn<v><int><sg><bas><vaux> ↔ ēgfãn sór "want to harvest corn"
    • "to talk"
      • <v><iv><sg><bas><want> ↔ vĩ sór "want to talk"
    • kanãn "to smooth"
      • kanãn<v><iv><sg><bas><want> ↔ kanãn sór "want to smooth"
  • Aspect Markers
    • (habitual marker)
    • a'a'ke "to vomit"
      • a'a'ke<v><bas><int><hab> ↔ a'a'ke tĩ "to vomit repeatedly"
    • (continuous marker)
    • rãnhrãj"to work"
      • rãnhrãj<v><bas><int><con> ↔ rãnhrãj nĩ "to have work"

Vocatives

Used to get someone's attention.

'ladies!'
jỹ 'lady!'
'aunt!' or 'mother-in-law!'
'men!'
vỹ 'man!'

Or any expression used with <-’>, such as 'kakrã’', which means 'uncle!'

Markers

Modality Markers

A modality marker modifies verbs or nouns when it follows them.

Follows only verbs (Adverb)

e "a lot"
kónãn "breaking/getting messed up/rotting"
kren "almost"
mãn "again"
rén "lastly"
sór "to want"
tãvĩn "focus, assertive"
vãnh "to not want"
vén "first of all"

Follows verbs, nouns, and other modality markers

gy "difficult"
ja "finished"
jãvãnh "to not know"
"to like"
mẽ "a lot/fast"
pẽ "true (focus, assertive)"
tãvĩ "focus, assertive"
"no"
ve "to appear as"

Aspect Markers

Aspect markers end a sentece, but can be followed by certain opinion markers.


Perfective Aspect Markers

There are perfective aspect markers that occur with the <v3> form of verbs that have this perfective form (groups 1 and 6). When the verbs don't have <v3>, the basic form is used.

They occur in the constructed sentences according to the nominative-accusative standard used in narration, description, and in the texts of procedures. They indicate an action from a global point-of-view. They differentiate an action for being done while standing, while sitting, while lying down, or while walking, by one person or many.

Perfective ("realis")
jẽ standing
jẽgtĩ habitually standing
jẽ nĩ in the situation of standing
doing
mũgtĩ habitually doing
mũ nĩ in the situation of doing
seated; in the situation of
nĩgtĩ habitually in the situation of
nĩ nĩ in the situation of sitting
nỹ lying down
nỹgtĩ habitually lying down
nỹ nĩ in the situation of lying down
  • Here, <mar> denotes a marker, <hab> denotes "habitually," and <sit> denotes "in the situation of."
    • jẽ<mar> ↔ jẽ
    • jẽ<mar><hab> ↔ jẽgtĩ
    • jẽ<mar><sit> ↔ jẽ nĩ

Imperfective Aspect Markers

Indicators of Circumstance

Grammatical Mood/Opinion Markers

Opinion markers express the attitude of the speaker about the transmitted information. They may occur in many different places in the sentence.

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
inhhã ‘only, focus marker’
ge ‘thus’
‘as well’
ha ’emphatic now’
‘emphatic focus, assertive’
hẽ ‘don't do!’
hẽ’ ‘it can't be done!’
hur ‘already’
huri ‘already’
hỹn ‘probably’
hỹn ‘where?’
ker ‘continued habitually, does not stop happening’
kur ‘fast,quickly, hurriedly’
mỹr ‘it's true, truthfully’
nẽji ‘as I have heard, it is said’
sir ‘thus, important information’
-' ‘doubtedly, emphatic focus marker, assertive’
[Diccionario PT-KG, p159]

Noun Markers

Subject markers are used to define the topic or subject of a given sentence. They typically follow the subject in a sentence.

They follow nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases when used as the subject. They are pospositions. When they occur, the subject is emphasized and preceeds the verb (in many cases, it starts the sentence).

Only <tóg>, following a pronoun, can follow the ver in the sentence and doesn't emphasize the subject. <tóg> is also the only one that can occur with the third person singular and that can combine with other subject markers.

Another particular case is <tỹ>, used to indicate ergaative and also with a topicalized constituent (?). In both cases, the consituent is the first one in the sentence.

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
subject expects/anticipates the action, speaker desires the action
mỹ subject of a yes-no question
ne subject is origin of the action
agent has feelings? (only in third-person)
nỹ subject is topic and contrasted with vỹ, subject shift/change
pijé subject does not do the action
tóg subject is agent
tỹ agent is ergative; topic marker
this subject does bad things
vỹ subject is topic

[Dicionario PT-KG 159-160]