Kaingang/Grammar

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Parts of Speech

Conjunctions

ge ra - 'as so'; 'even so' hã jé - 'for this end' hã kato - ‘instead of this' hã kỹ - 'because of this' hã ra - 'but, on the contrary of' hã ri - ‘similar to’ hã to - ‘instead of’ hã tugrĩn - ‘por isso’ hã tỹ - ‘por isso’ jarĩnmỹ - ‘apesar’ jãvo - ‘ao contrário de, mas’ jo - ‘but’ kỹ - ‘então, por isso, para esse fim’ mũ ra - 'as so'; 'even so' mỹr’ - ‘meanwhile’

Interjections

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Subject
Person Singular Plural
1 inh
2 ã ãjag
3m ti ag
3f fi fag

Examples:

Kanhgag ti a Kaingang man

Kanhgag fi a Kaingang woman

Kanhgag ag Kaingang men, a Kaingang man and his friends

Kanhgag fag Kaingang women, a Kaingang family, a Kaingang man and his family

Ti mynh fag His parents (lit: His mothers)

Reflexive Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstratives
Anaphoric (leftwards reference) Exophoric close Exophoric far
ẽn tag (this) (that) (followed by circumstantial indicator)

Interrogative Pronouns

Who What When
ū ne hẽ

Ex. 1: Ū ne? who is it?

Ex. 2: Ne ne? what is it?

[Pronoun document, 378-379]

Relative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

: Indefinite marker

Nouns

Verbs

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs need an object.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs can't have an object.

Semitransitive Verbs

Semitransitive verbs need a posposition.

Vocatives

Markers

Aspect Markers

Perfective Aspect Markers

Imperfective Aspect Markers

Indicators of Circumstance

Modality Markers

Follows only verbs

Follows verbs, nouns, and other modality markers

Grammatical Mood Markers

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
inhhã ‘only, focus marker’
ge ‘thus’
‘as well’
ha ’emphatic now’
‘emphatic focus, assertive’
hẽ ‘don't do!’
hẽ’ ‘it can't be done!’
hur ‘already’
huri ‘already’
hỹn ‘probably’
hỹn ‘where?’
ker ‘continued habitually, does not stop happening’
kur ‘fast,quickly, hurriedly’
mỹr ‘it's true, truthfully’
nẽji ‘as I have heard, it is said’
sir ‘thus, important information’
-' ‘doubtedly, emphatic focus marker, assertive’
[Diccionario PT-KG, p159]

Subject Markers

Subject markers are used to define the topic or subject of a given sentence. They typically follow the subject in a sentence.

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
subject expects/anticipate the action, speaker desires the action
mỹ subject of a yes-no question
ne subject is origin of the action
agent has feelings? (only in third-person)
nỹ subject is topic and contrasted with vỹ, subject shift/change
pijé subject does not do the action
tóg subject is agent
tỹ agent is ergative; topic marker
this subject does bad things
vỹ subject is topic

[Dicionario PT-KG 159-160]

Singular and Plural