Kaingang/Grammar
Contents
Parts of Speech
Conjunctions
ge ra - 'as so'; 'even so' hã jé - 'for this end' hã kato - ‘instead of this' hã kỹ - 'because of this' hã ra - 'but, on the contrary of' hã ri - ‘similar to’ hã to - ‘instead of’ hã tugrĩn - ‘por isso’ hã tỹ - ‘por isso’ jarĩnmỹ - ‘apesar’ jãvo - ‘ao contrário de, mas’ jo - ‘but’ kỹ - ‘então, por isso, para esse fim’ mũ ra - 'as so'; 'even so' mỹr’ - ‘meanwhile’
Interjections
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Subject | ||
---|---|---|
Person | Singular | Plural |
1 | inh | ẽ |
2 | ã | ãjag |
3m | ti | ag |
3f | fi | fag |
Examples:
Kanhgag ti a Kaingang man
Kanhgag fi a Kaingang woman
Kanhgag ag Kaingang men, a Kaingang man and his friends
Kanhgag fag Kaingang women, a Kaingang family, a Kaingang man and his family
Ti mynh fag His parents (lit: His mothers)
Reflexive Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstratives | ||
---|---|---|
Anaphoric (leftwards reference) | Exophoric close | Exophoric far |
ẽn | tag (this) | tã (that) (followed by circumstantial indicator) |
Interrogative Pronouns
Who | What | When |
---|---|---|
ū | ne | hẽ |
Ex. 1: Ū ne? who is it?
Ex. 2: Ne ne? what is it?
[Pronoun document, 378-379]
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
-ũ: Indefinite marker
Nouns
Verbs
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs need an object.
Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs can't have an object.
Semitransitive Verbs
Semitransitive verbs need a posposition.
Vocatives
Markers
Aspect Markers
Perfective Aspect Markers
Imperfective Aspect Markers
Indicators of Circumstance
Modality Markers
Follows only verbs
Follows verbs, nouns, and other modality markers
Grammatical Mood Markers
Kaingang | Approximate Meaning |
---|---|
inhhã | ‘only, focus marker’ |
ge | ‘thus’ |
gé | ‘as well’ |
ha | ’emphatic now’ |
hã | ‘emphatic focus, assertive’ |
hẽ | ‘don't do!’ |
hẽ’ | ‘it can't be done!’ |
hur | ‘already’ |
huri | ‘already’ |
hỹn | ‘probably’ |
hỹn | ‘where?’ |
ker | ‘continued habitually, does not stop happening’ |
kur | ‘fast,quickly, hurriedly’ |
mỹr | ‘it's true, truthfully’ |
nẽji | ‘as I have heard, it is said’ |
sir | ‘thus, important information’ |
-' | ‘doubtedly, emphatic focus marker, assertive’ |
Subject Markers
Subject markers are used to define the topic or subject of a given sentence. They typically follow the subject in a sentence.
Kaingang | Approximate Meaning |
---|---|
jé | subject expects/anticipate the action, speaker desires the action |
mỹ | subject of a yes-no question |
ne | subject is origin of the action |
né | agent has feelings? (only in third-person) |
nỹ | subject is topic and contrasted with vỹ, subject shift/change |
pijé | subject does not do the action |
tóg | subject is agent |
tỹ | agent is ergative; topic marker |
vé | this subject does bad things |
vỹ | subject is topic |
[Dicionario PT-KG 159-160]