Kaingang/Grammar

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Conjunctions

Common Conjunctions
Kaingang English
ge ra as so, even so
hã jé for this end
hã kato instead of this
hã kỹ because of this
hã ra but, on the contrary of
hã ri similar to
hã to instead of
hã tugrĩn because of this, for that
hã tỹ because of this, for that
jarĩnmỹ although
jãvo but, on the contrary of
jo but
kỹ therefore, for this end
mũ ra as so, even so
mỹr’ meanwhile

Interjections

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Subject
Person Singular Plural
1 inh
2 ã ãjag
3m ti ag
3f fi fag

Examples:

  • Genderable nouns receive "suffixes" for pluralization and gender.
    • Kanhgag<n><nf><sg> ↔ Kanhgag ti "an Indigenous (male)"
    • Kanhgag<n><f><sg> ↔ Kanhgag fi "an Indigenous (woman)"
    • Kanhgag<n><nf><pl> ↔ Kanhgag ag "Indigenous men"
    • Kanhgag<n><f><pl> ↔ Kanhgag fag "Indigenous women"
  • Some irregulars such as mynh mother get pluralized into different words. Mynh fag parents
    • mynh<n><nf><pl> ↔ mynh fag

Reflexive Pronouns

There are two reflexive pronouns that function as an object or possessive, but not as a subject or ergative.

Kaingang type English
jagnẽ object and possessive pronoun: reciprocal one another
vẽnh object pronoun: reflexive of himself/of herself

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstratives
Anaphoric (leftwards reference) Exophoric close Exophoric far
ẽn tag (this) (that) (followed by circumstantial indicator)

Interrogative Pronouns

Who What When
ū ne hẽ

Ex. 1: Ū ne? who is it?

Ex. 2: Ne ne? what is it?

[Pronoun document, 378-379]

Relative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

: Indefinite marker

Nouns

  • Nouns take on different morphology based on whether they are agents, subjects, or objects. These markers appear at the end of the noun phrase:
    • kẽnkẽr parrot
    • kẽnkẽr<n><sub> ↔ kẽnkẽr vỹ "the parrot"
    • kẽnkẽr<n><agent> ↔ kẽnkẽr tỹ "the parrot"
    • kẽnkẽr<n><obj> ↔ kẽnkẽr "the parrot"
  • Kaingang doesn't mark definite nouns. However, Kaingang has an (optional, but to reduce ambiguity we will always add it) indefinite marker.
    • jynhkén lizard
    • jynhkén<n><def> ↔ jynhkén "the/a lizard"
    • jynhkén<n><indef> ↔ jynhkén ũ "a lizard"
  • Kaingang nouns can all take genitive markers that are conjugated for number, person, and gender (in the third person)
    • mynh mother
    • mynh<n><gen3pnf> ↔ ti mynh "his mother"
    • mynh<n><gen1ps> ↔ inh mynh "my mother"

Verbs

Verbs come in one of three classes: intransitive, transitive, and semi-transative. Semi-transitive verbs can only take objects with the help of a post-position. There is no morphology assigned to these three classes, they are instead "invisible" innate traits of the individual verb.

rinh to use, to carry

  • rinh<v><tv><pl> ↔ rinh mũ
  • rinh<v><tv><sg> ↔ rinh tĩ

Vocatives

Used to get someone's attention.

Markers

Aspect Markers

Perfective Aspect Markers

Imperfective Aspect Markers

Indicators of Circumstance

Modality Markers

Follows only verbs

Follows verbs, nouns, and other modality markers

Grammatical Mood Markers

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
inhhã ‘only, focus marker’
ge ‘thus’
‘as well’
ha ’emphatic now’
‘emphatic focus, assertive’
hẽ ‘don't do!’
hẽ’ ‘it can't be done!’
hur ‘already’
huri ‘already’
hỹn ‘probably’
hỹn ‘where?’
ker ‘continued habitually, does not stop happening’
kur ‘fast,quickly, hurriedly’
mỹr ‘it's true, truthfully’
nẽji ‘as I have heard, it is said’
sir ‘thus, important information’
-' ‘doubtedly, emphatic focus marker, assertive’
[Diccionario PT-KG, p159]

Noun Markers

Subject markers are used to define the topic or subject of a given sentence. They typically follow the subject in a sentence.

Kaingang Approximate Meaning
subject expects/anticipate the action, speaker desires the action
mỹ subject of a yes-no question
ne subject is origin of the action
agent has feelings? (only in third-person)
nỹ subject is topic and contrasted with vỹ, subject shift/change
pijé subject does not do the action
tóg subject is agent
tỹ agent is ergative; topic marker
this subject does bad things
vỹ subject is topic

[Dicionario PT-KG 159-160]

Singular and Plural