Difference between revisions of "Khasi/Grammar"
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== Verbs == | == Verbs == | ||
* NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech. | * NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech. | ||
− | * {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex | + | * {{morphTest|kyrhuh{{tag|vblex}}|kyrhuh}}: roar |
− | * {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex | + | * {{morphTest|bam{{tag|vblex}}|bam}}: eat |
== Adverbs == | == Adverbs == |
Revision as of 01:44, 17 February 2017
Contents
Parts of speech
Nouns
Gender and Number
- Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
- khun<n><sg><f> ↔ ka khun: 'daughter'
- khun<n><sg><m> ↔ u khun: 'son'
- The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
- lang<n><pl><f> ↔ ki lang-kynthei:'she-goats', 'ewes'
- lang<n><pl><m> ↔ ki lang-shinrang:'he-goats', 'rams'
- There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
- massi<n><pl><m> ↔ ki massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
- massi: 'cow'
- kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'
- massi<n><pl><m> ↔ ki massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
Cases and Associated Pronouns
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
- Nominative
- The noun without any prepositions
- briw<n><nom> ↔ briw
- Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
- Accusative
- Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
- briw<n><acc> ↔ ia briw
- Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
- Dative
- Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
- nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga
- Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
- Instrumental
- Takes 'da' (by, with)
- wait<n><ins> ↔ da wait
- Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
- Ablative
- Takes 'na' (from, as)
- ing<n><abl> ↔ na ing
- Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
- Genitive
- Takes 'jong' (of)
- kymi<n><gen> ↔ jong kymi
- Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
- Locative
- Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
- ing<n><loc> ↔ ha ing
- Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
- Vocative
- Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
- Blei<n><voc> ↔ ah Blei
- Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God'
Diminutives
- In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
- To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
- briw <n><sg> ↔ i briw: 'A dwarf'
- maw <n><sg> ↔ i maw: 'A pebble'
- ing <n><sg> ↔ i ing: 'A little house'
- In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
- briw <n><pl> ↔ ki 'riw-raid: 'A dwarf'
- maw <n><pl> ↔ ki maw-ria: 'Pebbles'
- ing <n><pl> ↔ ki ing-rit: 'Little houses'
Morphology
Abstract Nouns
- Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
- leh<n> ↔ ka jingleh: 'action'
- babha<n> ↔ ka babha: 'the good'
- Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
- suk<n> ↔ ka suk: 'happiness'
- Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
- khang <n> ↔ ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'
Agentive Marker
- 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
- tuh<n> ↔ nongtuh: 'thief'
- behmrad<n> ↔ nongbehmrad: 'hunter'
- kha-ii<n> ↔ nongkha-ii: 'trader'
Other Prefixes
- According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"
Verbs
- NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
- kyrhuh<vblex> ↔ kyrhuh: roar
- bam<vblex> ↔ bam: eat
Adverbs
- NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
Adjectives
- Adjectives agree with nouns.
- The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
- babha<adj> ↔ babha: good
- barit<adj> ↔ barit: small
- It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
- u briw-bastad; 'a learned man'
- u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
- u soh-baiong; 'a black fruit'
- u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
- As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparatives
- 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
- baeh<adj><comp> ↔ ba kham eh: hard
- Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
- Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'
Superlatives
There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:
- Adjective + 'tam'
- babha<adj><sup> ↔ babha tam: best
- Comparative + 'tam'
- ba kham bha<sup> ↔ ba kham bha tam: best
- Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
- babha<sup> ↔ babha kham tam: best
- Prep phrase
- Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
- Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
- ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar eh: most exceedingly cruel
- ba runar<sup> ↔ ba runar shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel
- Superlative + eh
- ba runar tam<sup> ↔ ba runar tam eh: most cruel
- ba runar kham-tam<sup> ↔ ba runar kham-tam-eh: most cruel
- ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ ba runar tam-shikkadei eh: most exceedingly cruel
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
Prepositions
- jong<pr> ↔ jong: of
- ha<pr> ↔ ha: in, to, at, on
- ia<pr> ↔ ia: to
- na<pr> ↔ na: from
- da<pr> ↔ da: by
- Prepositions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
- ha-->haei: where
- ha-->hajan: near
See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
- The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
- nga, prn, p1, sg, nom: 'I'
- ngi, prn, p1, pl, nom: 'we'
- me, prn, p2, sg, m, nom: 'you'
- pha, prn, p2, sg, f, nom: 'you'
- phi, prn, p2, pl, nom: 'you (pl)'
- u, prn, p3, sg, m, nom: 'he, it'
- ka, prn, p3, sg, f, nom: 'she, it'
- ki, prn, p3, pl, nom: 'they'
Prepositional Marker Words
- (Ø, pr, nom)
- ia, pr, acc
- da, pr, ins
- ia or ha, pr, dat
- na, pr, abl
- jong, pr, gen
- ha, pr, loc
- ah, pr, voc
As an example of formation:
- ia nga, acc, sg, p1:'me'
All Masculine/Ungendered Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above)
- 1st Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- nga<prn><p1><sg><nom> ↔ nga: I
- nga<prn><p1><sg><acc> ↔ ia nga: me
- nga<prn><p1><sg><ins> ↔ da nga: by me
- nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ia nga: to me
- nga<prn><p1><sg><dat> ↔ ha nga: to me (alternative)
- nga<prn><p1><sg><abl> ↔ na nga: from me
- nga<prn><p1><sg><gen> ↔ jong nga: of me; my, mine
- nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ ha nga: at, with, or in me
- nga<prn><p1><sg><loc> ↔ sha nga: at, with, or in me (alternative)
- nga<prn><p1><sg><voc> ↔ ah nga: Oh me!
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ngi: we
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><nom> ↔ ma ngi: we (alternative)
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><acc> ↔ ia ngi: us
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><ins> ↔ da ngi: by us
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ia ngi: to us (alternative)
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><dat> ↔ ha ngi: to us
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><abl> ↔ na ngi: from us
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><gen> ↔ jong ngi: of us; our, ours
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ ha ngi: at, with, or in us
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><loc> ↔ sha ngi: at, with, or in us (alternative)
- ngi<prn><p1><pl><voc> ↔ ah ngi: Oh we!
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Second Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ me: you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><nom> ↔ ma me: you (alternative)
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia me: you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><ins> ↔ da me: by you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia me: to you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha me: to you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><abl> ↔ na me: from you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong me: of you; your, yours
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha me: at, with, or in you
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha me: at, with, or in you (alternative)
- me<prn><p2><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah me: Oh you!
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ phi: you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><nom> ↔ ma phi: you (alternative)
- phi<prn><p2><pl><acc> ↔ ia phi: you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><ins> ↔ da phi: by you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ia phi: to you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><dat> ↔ ha phi: to you (alternative)
- phi<prn><p2><pl><abl> ↔ na phi: from you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><gen> ↔ jong phi: of you; your, yours
- phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ ha phi: at, with, or in you
- phi<prn><p2><pl><loc> ↔ sha phi: at, with, or in you (alternative)
- phi<prn><p2><pl><voc> ↔ ah phi: Oh you!
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Third Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><nom> ↔ u: he, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia u: him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><ins> ↔ da u: by him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ia u: to him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><dat> ↔ ha u: to him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><abl> ↔ na u: from him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong u: of him, it; his, its
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ ha u: at, with, or in him, it
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><loc> ↔ sha u: at, with, or in him, it (alternative)
- u<prn><p3><sg><m><voc> ↔ ah u: Oh him, Oh it!
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ki: they
- ki<prn><p3><pl><nom> ↔ ma ki: they (alternative)
- ki<prn><p3><pl><acc> ↔ ia ki: them
- ki<prn><p3><pl><ins> ↔ da ki: by them
- ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ia ki: to them
- ki<prn><p3><pl><dat> ↔ ha ki: to them (alternative)
- ki<prn><p3><pl><abl> ↔ na ki: from them
- ki<prn><p3><pl><gen> ↔ jong ki: of them, their, theirs
- ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ ha ki: at, with, or in them
- ki<prn><p3><pl><loc> ↔ sha ki: at, with, or in them (alternative)
- Singular Pronouns Declined
Relative Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Masculine
- uba<prn><rel><sg><m><nom> ↔ uba: who
- uba<prn><rel><sg><m><acc> ↔ ia uba: whom
- uba<prn><rel><sg><m><ins> ↔ da uba: by whom
- uba<prn><rel><sg><m><gen> ↔ jong uba: whose
- Feminine
- kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><nom> ↔ kaba: who
- kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><acc> ↔ ia kaba: whom
- kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><ins> ↔ da kaba: by whom
- kaba<prn><rel><sg><f><gen> ↔ jong kaba whose
- Diminutive
- iba<prn><rel><sg><nom> ↔ iba: who
- iba<prn><rel><sg><acc> ↔ ia iba: whom
- iba<prn><rel><sg><ins> ↔ da iba: by whom
- iba<prn><rel><sg><gen> ↔ jong iba whose
- Masculine
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- kiba<prn><rel><pl><nom> ↔ kiba: who
- kiba<prn><rel><pl><acc> ↔ ia kiba: whom
- kiba<prn><rel><pl><ins> ↔ da kiba: by whom
- kiba<prn><rel><pl><gen> ↔ jong kiba: whose
- Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba
Demonstrative Pronouns
- Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
- Formation: article + {-ne, -ta, -to, -tai} (respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible))
- u<sg><m><dem> ↔ une: this
- ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kane: this
- ki<pl><dem> ↔ kine: this
- u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uta: that
- ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kata: that
- ki<pl><dem> ↔ kita: that
- u<sg><m><dem> ↔ uto: that
- ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ kato: that
- ki<pl><dem> ↔ kito: that
- u<sg><m><dem> ↔ utai: that
- ka<sg><f><dem> ↔ katai: that
- ki<pl><dem> ↔ kitai: that
Spellrelax (notes to self)
- With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
- /ia/ may be spelled 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
- /ing/, or house, may be spelled 'ïing'.
- It seems that in general, some might use 'i' for 'ï.'
- Morphology may attach to words or come before/after it as separate words.
References
- Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
- Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.