Difference between revisions of "Khasi/Grammar"
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***{{morphTest|me ''or'' ma-me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|pha''or'' ma-pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}} | ***{{morphTest|me ''or'' ma-me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|pha''or'' ma-pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|ia me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|ia pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}} | ***{{morphTest|ia me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|ia pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}} | ||
− | ***{{morphTest|da me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'by | + | ***{{morphTest|da me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'by you'}}, {{morphTest|da pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'by you'}} |
***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'to you'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}} | ***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'to you'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|na me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'from you'}}, {{morphTest|na pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'from you'}} | ***{{morphTest|na me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'from you'}}, {{morphTest|na pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'from you'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|jong me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}, {{morphTest|jong pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}} | ***{{morphTest|jong me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}, {{morphTest|jong pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}} | ***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}} | ||
− | ***{{morphTest| | + | ***{{morphTest|Oh me!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'Oh you!'}}, {{morphTest|Ah pha!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'Oh you!'}} |
− | ** Plural Pronouns | + | ** Plural Pronouns Declined |
***{{morphTest|phi''or'' ma phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}} | ***{{morphTest|phi''or'' ma phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|ia phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}} | ***{{morphTest|ia phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}} | ||
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***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}} | ***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}} | ||
***{{morphTest|Ah phi!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'Oh you!'}} | ***{{morphTest|Ah phi!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'Oh you!'}} | ||
+ | *Third Person Pronouns | ||
+ | ** Singular Pronouns Declined | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'he, it'}}, {{morphTest|ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'she, it'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ia u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ia ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'her, it'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|da u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'by him, it'}}, {{morphTest|da ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'by her, it'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'to him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|na u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'from him, it'}}, {{morphTest|na ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'from her, it'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|jong u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'of him, it'; 'his, its'}}, {{morphTest|jong ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in her, it'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|Ah u!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'Oh him, it!'}}, {{morphTest|Ah ka!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'Oh her, it!'}} | ||
+ | ** Plural Pronouns Declined | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ki''or'' ma ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'they'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ia ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'them'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|da ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'by them'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'to them'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|na ki{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'from them'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|jong ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'of them'; 'their', 'theirs'}} | ||
+ | ***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'at, with, ''or'' in them'}} | ||
== Spellrelax == | == Spellrelax == |
Revision as of 01:42, 9 February 2017
Contents
Parts of speech
Nouns
Gender and Number
- Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
- ka khun<n><sg><f> ↔ 'daughter'
- u khun<n><sg><m> ↔ 'son'
- The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
- ki lang-kynthei<n><pl><f> ↔ 'she-goats', 'ewes'
- ki lang-shinrang<n><pl><m> ↔ 'he-goats', 'rams'
- There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
- ki massi-kyrtong<n><pl><m> ↔ 'bulls', 'male cows'
- massi<n> ↔ 'cow'
- kyrtong<adj><m> ↔ 'fat', 'strong'
- ki massi-kyrtong<n><pl><m> ↔ 'bulls', 'male cows'
Cases and Associated Pronouns
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
- Nominative
- The noun without any prepositions
- U briw u la wan<nom> ↔ 'The man came'
- Accusative
- Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
- U la shem ia u briw<acc> ↔ 'He found the man'
- Dative
- Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
- U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab<dat> ↔ 'he gave me the book'
- ‘He gave me a book’ would be ‘he gave to I a book’
- Instrumental
- Takes 'da' (by, with)
- U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait<ins> ↔ 'He cut his hand with an ax'
- Ablative
- Takes 'na' (from, as)
- U Hom u la mih na la ing<abl> ↔ 'Hom came out of his house'
- Genitive
- Takes 'jong' (of)
- Ka ing jong ka kymi<gen> ↔ 'His mother's house'
- Locative
- Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
- Ka kymi ka don ha ing<loc> ↔ 'His mother is at home'
- Vocative
- Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
- Ah Blei!, Ko Kyra! <voc> ↔ 'Oh God', 'My/our Father!'
Diminutives
- In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
- To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
- i briw <n> ↔ 'The little man'
- In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-rit,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
Morphology
Abstract Nouns
- Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
- ka jingleh<n> ↔ 'action'
- leh<inf> ↔ 'to do'
- ka babha<n> ↔ 'the good'
- babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
- ka jingleh<n> ↔ 'action'
- Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
- ka suk<n> ↔ 'happiness'
- suk<adj> ↔ 'happy'
- ka suk<n> ↔ 'happiness'
- Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
- ka jing khang <n> ↔ 'a door', lit 'a shutting'
Agentive Marker
- 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
- nongtuh <n> ↔ 'thief'
- tuh <inf> ↔ 'to steal'
- nongtuh <n> ↔ 'thief'
Other Prefixes
- According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"
Verbs
- kyrhuh<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'roar'
- bam<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'eat'
Adjectives
- Adjectives agree with nouns.
- The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
- babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
- barit<adj> ↔ 'small'
- It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
- u briw-bastad<adj> ↔ 'a learned man'
- u briw-stad<adj> ↔ 'an astrologer'
- u soh-baiong<adj> ↔ 'a black fruit'
- u soh-iong<adj> ↔ 'a plum (black)'
- As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparatives
- 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
- baeh<adj> ↔ 'hard'
- ba kham eh<adj><comp> ↔ 'harder'
- Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
- Ia kane, bha kato<comp> ↔ lit 'than this, good that', 'that is better than this'
Superlatives
There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:
- Adjective + 'tam'
- babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
- babha tam<adj><sup> ↔ 'best'
- Comparative + 'tam'
- ba kham bha<comp> ↔ 'better'
- ba kham bha tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
- Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
- babha kham tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
- Prep phrase
- na kine bha katai<sup> ↔ lit 'of these, good that'
- Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
- ba runar eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
- ba runar shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
- Superlative + eh
- ba runar tam eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
- ba runar kham-tam-eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
- ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
- ba runar tam-shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
Prepositions
- jong<pr> ↔ 'of'
- ha<pr> ↔ 'in, to, at, on'
- ia/ya/ïa<pr> ↔ 'to'
- na<pr> ↔ 'from'
- Preporitions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
- haei<adv> ↔ 'where'
- hajan<adv> ↔ 'near'
See noun section on cases for more detail about use.
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
- 1st Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- nga<prn><nom><sg><p1> ↔ 'I'
- ia nga<prn><acc><sg><p1> ↔ 'me'
- da nga<prn><ins><sg><p1> ↔ 'by me'
- ia or ha nga<prn><dat><p1><sg> ↔ 'to me'
- na nga<prn><abl><sg><p1> ↔ 'from me'
- jong nga<prn><gen><sg><p1> ↔ 'of me'; 'my', 'mine'
- ha or sha nga<prn><loc><sg><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in me'
- Ah ma-nga!<prn><voc><sg><p1> ↔ 'Oh me!'
- Plural Pronouns "Declined"
- ngi or ma ngi<prn><nom><pl><p1> ↔ 'we'
- ia ngi<prn><acc><pl><p1> ↔ 'us'
- da ngi<prn><ins><pl><p1> ↔ 'by us'
- ia or ha ngi<prn><dat><pl><p1> ↔ 'to us'
- na ngi{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p1>|'from us'}}
- jong ngi<prn><gen><pl><p1> ↔ 'of us'; 'our', 'ours'
- ha or sha ngi<prn><loc><pl><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in us'
- Ah ngi!<prn><voc><pl><p1> ↔ 'Oh we!'
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Second Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- me or ma-me<prn><nom><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you', phaor ma-pha<prn><nom><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
- ia me<prn><acc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you', ia pha<prn><acc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
- da me<prn><ins><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'by you', da pha<prn><ins><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'by you'
- ia or ha me<prn><dat><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'to you', ia or ha pha<prn><dat><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'to you'
- na me<prn><abl><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'from you', na pha<prn><abl><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'from you'
- jong me<prn><gen><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours', jong pha<prn><gen><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
- ha or sha me<prn><loc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in you', ha or sha pha<prn><loc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
- Oh me!<prn><voc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'Oh you!', Ah pha!<prn><voc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'Oh you!'
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- phior ma phi<prn><nom><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
- ia phi<prn><acc><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
- da phi<prn><ins><pl><p2> ↔ 'by you'
- ia or ha phi<prn><dat><pl><p2> ↔ 'to you'
- na phi{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p2>|'from you'}}
- jong phi<prn><gen><pl><p2> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
- ha or sha phi<prn><loc><pl><p2> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
- Ah phi!<prn><voc><pl><p2> ↔ 'Oh you!'
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Third Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- u<prn><nom><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'he, it', ka<prn><nom><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'she, it'
- ia u<prn><acc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'him, it', ia ka<prn><acc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'her, it'
- da u<prn><ins><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'by him, it', da ka<prn><ins><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'by her, it'
- ia or ha u<prn><dat><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'to him, it', ia or ha ka<prn><dat><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'to you'
- na u<prn><abl><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'from him, it', na ka<prn><abl><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'from her, it'
- jong u<prn><gen><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'of him, it'; 'his, its', jong ka<prn><gen><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers'
- ha or sha u<prn><loc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in him, it', ha or sha ka<prn><loc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in her, it'
- Ah u!<prn><voc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'Oh him, it!', Ah ka!<prn><voc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'Oh her, it!'
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- kior ma ki<prn><nom><pl><p3> ↔ 'they'
- ia ki<prn><acc><pl><p3> ↔ 'them'
- da ki<prn><ins><pl><p3> ↔ 'by them'
- ia or ha ki<prn><dat><pl><p3> ↔ 'to them'
- na ki{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p3>|'from them'}}
- jong ki<prn><gen><pl><p3> ↔ 'of them'; 'their', 'theirs'
- ha or sha ki<prn><loc><pl><p3> ↔ 'at, with, or in them'
- Singular Pronouns Declined
Spellrelax
- With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.