Difference between revisions of "Khasi/Grammar"

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(Personal Pronouns)
(Personal Pronouns)
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***{{morphTest|me ''or'' ma-me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|pha''or'' ma-pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|me ''or'' ma-me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|pha''or'' ma-pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|ia pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'you'}}, {{morphTest|ia pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'you'}}
***{{morphTest|da me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'by me'}}, {{morphTest|da pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'by me'}}
+
***{{morphTest|da me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'by you'}}, {{morphTest|da pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'by you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'to you'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'to you'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|na me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'from you'}}, {{morphTest|na pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'from you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|na me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'from you'}}, {{morphTest|na pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'from you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|jong me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}, {{morphTest|jong pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}
 
***{{morphTest|jong me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}, {{morphTest|jong pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'of you'; 'your', 'yours'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha me{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha pha{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}
***{{morphTest|Ah me!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'Oh you!'}}, {{morphTest|Ah pha!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'Ah you!'}}
+
***{{morphTest|Oh me!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|m}}|'Oh you!'}}, {{morphTest|Ah pha!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p2}}{{tag|f}}|'Oh you!'}}
** Plural Pronouns "Declined"
+
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 
***{{morphTest|phi''or'' ma phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|phi''or'' ma phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ia phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'you'}}
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***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha phi{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'at, with, ''or'' in you'}}
 
***{{morphTest|Ah phi!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'Oh you!'}}
 
***{{morphTest|Ah phi!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p2}}|'Oh you!'}}
 +
*Third Person Pronouns
 +
** Singular Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'he, it'}}, {{morphTest|ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'she, it'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ia u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ia ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'her, it'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|da u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'by him, it'}}, {{morphTest|da ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'by her, it'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'to him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'to you'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|na u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'from him, it'}}, {{morphTest|na ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'from her, it'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|jong u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'of him, it'; 'his, its'}}, {{morphTest|jong ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha u{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'at, with, ''or'' in him, it'}}, {{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha ka{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'at, with, ''or'' in her, it'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|Ah u!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|m}}|'Oh him, it!'}}, {{morphTest|Ah ka!{{tag|prn}}{{tag|voc}}{{tag|sg}}{{tag|p3}}{{tag|f}}|'Oh her, it!'}}
 +
** Plural Pronouns Declined
 +
***{{morphTest|ki''or'' ma ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|nom}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'they'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ia ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|acc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'them'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|da ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|ins}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'by them'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ia ''or'' ha ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|dat}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'to them'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|na ki{tag|prn}}{{tag|abl}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'from them'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|jong ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|gen}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'of them'; 'their', 'theirs'}}
 +
***{{morphTest|ha ''or'' sha ki{{tag|prn}}{{tag|loc}}{{tag|pl}}{{tag|p3}}|'at, with, ''or'' in them'}}
  
 
== Spellrelax ==
 
== Spellrelax ==

Revision as of 01:42, 9 February 2017

Parts of speech

Nouns

Gender and Number

  • Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
    • ka khun<n><sg><f> ↔ 'daughter'
    • u khun<n><sg><m> ↔ 'son'
  • The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
    • ki lang-kynthei<n><pl><f> ↔ 'she-goats', 'ewes'
    • ki lang-shinrang<n><pl><m> ↔ 'he-goats', 'rams'
  • There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
    • ki massi-kyrtong<n><pl><m> ↔ 'bulls', 'male cows'
      • massi<n> ↔ 'cow'
      • kyrtong<adj><m> ↔ 'fat', 'strong'

Cases and Associated Pronouns

Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.

  • Nominative
    • The noun without any prepositions
    • U briw u la wan<nom> ↔ 'The man came'
  • Accusative
    • Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
    • U la shem ia u briw<acc> ↔ 'He found the man'
  • Dative
    • Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
    • U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab<dat> ↔ 'he gave me the book'
    • ‘He gave me a book’ would be ‘he gave to I a book’
  • Instrumental
    • Takes 'da' (by, with)
    • U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait<ins> ↔ 'He cut his hand with an ax'
  • Ablative
    • Takes 'na' (from, as)
    • U Hom u la mih na la ing<abl> ↔ 'Hom came out of his house'
  • Genitive
    • Takes 'jong' (of)
    • Ka ing jong ka kymi<gen> ↔ 'His mother's house'
  • Locative
    • Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
    • Ka kymi ka don ha ing<loc> ↔ 'His mother is at home'
  • Vocative
    • Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
    • Ah Blei!, Ko Kyra! <voc> ↔ 'Oh God', 'My/our Father!'

Diminutives

  • In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
  • To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
    • i briw <n> ↔ 'The little man'
  • In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-rit,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.

Morphology

Abstract Nouns

  • Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
    • ka jingleh<n> ↔ 'action'
      • leh<inf> ↔ 'to do'
    • ka babha<n> ↔ 'the good'
      • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
  • Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
    • ka suk<n> ↔ 'happiness'
      • suk<adj> ↔ 'happy'
  • Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
    • ka jing khang <n> ↔ 'a door', lit 'a shutting'

Agentive Marker

  • 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
    • nongtuh <n> ↔ 'thief'
      • tuh <inf> ↔ 'to steal'

Other Prefixes

  • According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"

Verbs

  • kyrhuh<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'roar'
  • bam<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'eat'

Adjectives

  • Adjectives agree with nouns.
  • The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
    • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
    • barit<adj> ↔ 'small'
  • It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
    • u briw-bastad<adj> ↔ 'a learned man'
    • u briw-stad<adj> ↔ 'an astrologer'
    • u soh-baiong<adj> ↔ 'a black fruit'
    • u soh-iong<adj> ↔ 'a plum (black)'
  • As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives

  • 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
    • baeh<adj> ↔ 'hard'
    • ba kham eh<adj><comp> ↔ 'harder'
  • Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
    • Ia kane, bha kato<comp> ↔ lit 'than this, good that', 'that is better than this'

Superlatives

There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:

  • Adjective + 'tam'
    • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
    • babha tam<adj><sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Comparative + 'tam'
    • ba kham bha<comp> ↔ 'better'
    • ba kham bha tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
    • babha kham tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Prep phrase
    • na kine bha katai<sup> ↔ lit 'of these, good that'
  • Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
    • Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
      • ba runar eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
      • ba runar shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
    • Superlative + eh
      • ba runar tam eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
      • ba runar kham-tam-eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'

Prepositions

  • jong<pr> ↔ 'of'
  • ha<pr> ↔ 'in, to, at, on'
  • ia/ya/ïa<pr> ↔ 'to'
  • na<pr> ↔ 'from'
  • Preporitions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
    • haei<adv> ↔ 'where'
    • hajan<adv> ↔ 'near'

See noun section on cases for more detail about use.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

  • 1st Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • nga<prn><nom><sg><p1> ↔ 'I'
      • ia nga<prn><acc><sg><p1> ↔ 'me'
      • da nga<prn><ins><sg><p1> ↔ 'by me'
      • ia or ha nga<prn><dat><p1><sg> ↔ 'to me'
      • na nga<prn><abl><sg><p1> ↔ 'from me'
      • jong nga<prn><gen><sg><p1> ↔ 'of me'; 'my', 'mine'
      • ha or sha nga<prn><loc><sg><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in me'
      • Ah ma-nga!<prn><voc><sg><p1> ↔ 'Oh me!'
    • Plural Pronouns "Declined"
      • ngi or ma ngi<prn><nom><pl><p1> ↔ 'we'
      • ia ngi<prn><acc><pl><p1> ↔ 'us'
      • da ngi<prn><ins><pl><p1> ↔ 'by us'
      • ia or ha ngi<prn><dat><pl><p1> ↔ 'to us'
      • na ngi{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p1>|'from us'}}
      • jong ngi<prn><gen><pl><p1> ↔ 'of us'; 'our', 'ours'
      • ha or sha ngi<prn><loc><pl><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in us'
      • Ah ngi!<prn><voc><pl><p1> ↔ 'Oh we!'
  • Second Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • me or ma-me<prn><nom><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you', phaor ma-pha<prn><nom><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
      • ia me<prn><acc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you', ia pha<prn><acc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
      • da me<prn><ins><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'by you', da pha<prn><ins><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'by you'
      • ia or ha me<prn><dat><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'to you', ia or ha pha<prn><dat><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'to you'
      • na me<prn><abl><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'from you', na pha<prn><abl><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'from you'
      • jong me<prn><gen><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours', jong pha<prn><gen><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
      • ha or sha me<prn><loc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in you', ha or sha pha<prn><loc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
      • Oh me!<prn><voc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'Oh you!', Ah pha!<prn><voc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'Oh you!'
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • phior ma phi<prn><nom><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
      • ia phi<prn><acc><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
      • da phi<prn><ins><pl><p2> ↔ 'by you'
      • ia or ha phi<prn><dat><pl><p2> ↔ 'to you'
      • na phi{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p2>|'from you'}}
      • jong phi<prn><gen><pl><p2> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
      • ha or sha phi<prn><loc><pl><p2> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
      • Ah phi!<prn><voc><pl><p2> ↔ 'Oh you!'
  • Third Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • u<prn><nom><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'he, it', ka<prn><nom><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'she, it'
      • ia u<prn><acc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'him, it', ia ka<prn><acc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'her, it'
      • da u<prn><ins><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'by him, it', da ka<prn><ins><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'by her, it'
      • ia or ha u<prn><dat><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'to him, it', ia or ha ka<prn><dat><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'to you'
      • na u<prn><abl><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'from him, it', na ka<prn><abl><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'from her, it'
      • jong u<prn><gen><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'of him, it'; 'his, its', jong ka<prn><gen><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers'
      • ha or sha u<prn><loc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in him, it', ha or sha ka<prn><loc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in her, it'
      • Ah u!<prn><voc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'Oh him, it!', Ah ka!<prn><voc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'Oh her, it!'
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • kior ma ki<prn><nom><pl><p3> ↔ 'they'
      • ia ki<prn><acc><pl><p3> ↔ 'them'
      • da ki<prn><ins><pl><p3> ↔ 'by them'
      • ia or ha ki<prn><dat><pl><p3> ↔ 'to them'
      • na ki{tag ↔ prn<abl><pl><p3>|'from them'}}
      • jong ki<prn><gen><pl><p3> ↔ 'of them'; 'their', 'theirs'
      • ha or sha ki<prn><loc><pl><p3> ↔ 'at, with, or in them'

Spellrelax

  • With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.