Khasi/Grammar

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Parts of speech

Nouns

Gender and Number

  • Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
    • ka khun<n><sg><f> ↔ 'daughter'
    • u khun<n><sg><m> ↔ 'son'
  • The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
    • ki lang-kynthei<n><pl><f> ↔ 'she-goats', 'ewes'
    • ki lang-shinrang<n><pl><m> ↔ 'he-goats', 'rams'
  • There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
    • ki massi-kyrtong<n><pl><m> ↔ 'bulls', 'male cows'
      • massi<n> ↔ 'cow'
      • kyrtong<adj><m> ↔ 'fat', 'strong'

Cases and Associated Pronouns

Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.

  • Nominative
    • The noun without any prepositions
    • u briw <n><nom> ↔ 'the man'
    • Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
  • Accusative
    • Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
    • ia u briw<n><acc> ↔ the man
    • Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
  • Dative
    • Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
    • ha nga<n><dat> ↔ me, to me
    • Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
  • Instrumental
    • Takes 'da' (by, with)
    • da ka wait<n><ins> ↔ with an ax
    • Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
  • Ablative
    • Takes 'na' (from, as)
    • na la ing<n><abl> ↔ out [of] the house
    • Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
  • Genitive
    • Takes 'jong' (of)
    • jong ka kymi<n><gen> ↔ of his mother
    • Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
  • Locative
    • Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
    • ha ing<n><loc> ↔ at home
    • Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
  • Vocative
    • Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
    • Ah Blei!, Ko Kyra! <voc> ↔ 'Oh God', 'My/our Father!'

Diminutives

  • In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
  • To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
    • i briw <n><sg> ↔ 'A dwarf'
    • i maw <n><sg> ↔ 'A pebble'
    • i ing <n><sg> ↔ 'A little house'
  • In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
    • ki 'riw-raid <n><pl> ↔ 'A dwarf'
    • ki maw-ria <n><pl> ↔ 'Pebbles'
    • ki ing-rit <n><pl> ↔ 'Little houses'

Morphology

Abstract Nouns

  • Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
    • ka jingleh<n> ↔ 'action'
      • leh<inf> ↔ 'to do'
    • ka babha<n> ↔ 'the good'
      • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
  • Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
    • ka suk<n> ↔ 'happiness'
      • suk<adj> ↔ 'happy'
  • Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
    • ka jing khang <n> ↔ 'a door', lit 'a shutting'

Agentive Marker

  • 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
    • nongtuh <n> ↔ 'thief'
      • tuh <inf> ↔ 'to steal'

Other Prefixes

  • According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"

Verbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
  • kyrhuh<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'roar'
  • bam<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'eat'

Adverbs

  • NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.

Adjectives

  • Adjectives agree with nouns.
  • The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
    • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
    • barit<adj> ↔ 'small'
  • It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
    • u briw-bastad<adj> ↔ 'a learned man'
    • u briw-stad<adj> ↔ 'an astrologer'
    • u soh-baiong<adj> ↔ 'a black fruit'
    • u soh-iong<adj> ↔ 'a plum (black)'
  • As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives

  • 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
    • baeh<adj> ↔ 'hard'
    • ba kham eh<adj><comp> ↔ 'harder'
  • Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
    • Ia kane, bha kato<comp> ↔ lit 'than this, good that', 'that is better than this'

Superlatives

There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:

  • Adjective + 'tam'
    • babha<adj> ↔ 'good'
    • babha tam<adj><sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Comparative + 'tam'
    • ba kham bha<comp> ↔ 'better'
    • ba kham bha tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
    • babha kham tam<sup> ↔ 'best'
  • Prep phrase
    • na kine bha katai<sup> ↔ lit 'of these, good that'
  • Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
    • Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
      • ba runar eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
      • ba runar shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
    • Superlative + eh
      • ba runar tam eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
      • ba runar kham-tam-eh<sup> ↔ 'most cruel'
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'
      • ba runar tam-shikkadei eh<sup> ↔ 'most exceedingly cruel'

Prepositions

  • jong<pr> ↔ 'of'
  • ha<pr> ↔ 'in, to, at, on'
  • ia/ya/ïa<pr> ↔ 'to'
  • na<pr> ↔ 'from'
  • Preporitions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
    • haei<adv> ↔ 'where'
    • hajan<adv> ↔ 'near'

See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

  • The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
    • nga<prn><per><p1><sg><nom> ↔ 'I'
    • ngi<prn><per><p1><pl><nom> ↔ 'we'
    • me<prn><per><p2><sg><nom> ↔ 'you'
    • phi<prn><per><p2><pl><nom> ↔ 'you (pl)'
    • u<prn><per><p3><sg><nom> ↔ 'he, she, it'
    • ki<prn><per><p3><pl><nom> ↔ 'they'

Prepositional Marker Words

  • <pr><nom>)
  • ia<pr><acc>
  • da<pr><ins>
  • ia or ha<pr><dat>
  • na<pr><abl>
  • jong<pr><gen>
  • ha<pr><loc>
  • ah<pr><voc>

As an example of formation:

  • ia nga<acc><sg><p1> 'me'

/*

  • 1st Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • nga<prn><nom><sg><p1> ↔ 'I'
      • ia nga<prn><acc><sg><p1> ↔ 'me'
      • da nga<prn><ins><sg><p1> ↔ 'by me'
      • ia or ha nga<prn><dat><p1><sg> ↔ 'to me'
      • na nga<prn><abl><sg><p1> ↔ 'from me'
      • jong nga<prn><gen><sg><p1> ↔ 'of me'; 'my', 'mine'
      • ha or sha nga<prn><loc><sg><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in me'
      • Ah ma-nga!<prn><voc><sg><p1> ↔ 'Oh me!'
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • ngi or ma ngi<prn><nom><pl><p1> ↔ 'we'
      • ia ngi<prn><acc><pl><p1> ↔ 'us'
      • da ngi<prn><ins><pl><p1> ↔ 'by us'
      • ia or ha ngi<prn><dat><pl><p1> ↔ 'to us'
      • na ngi<prn><abl><pl><p1> ↔ 'from us'
      • jong ngi<prn><gen><pl><p1> ↔ 'of us'; 'our', 'ours'
      • ha or sha ngi<prn><loc><pl><p1> ↔ 'at, with, or in us'
      • Ah ngi!<prn><voc><pl><p1> ↔ 'Oh we!'
  • Second Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • me or ma-me<prn><nom><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you'; pha or ma-pha<prn><nom><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
      • ia me<prn><acc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you'; ia pha<prn><acc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you'
      • da me<prn><ins><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'by you'; da pha<prn><ins><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'by you'
      • ia or ha me<prn><dat><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'to you'; ia or ha pha<prn><dat><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'to you'
      • na me<prn><abl><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'from you'; na pha<prn><abl><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'from you'
      • jong me<prn><gen><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'; jong pha<prn><gen><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
      • ha or sha me<prn><loc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'; ha or sha pha<prn><loc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
      • Oh me!<prn><voc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'Oh you!'; Ah pha!<prn><voc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'Oh you!'
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • phior ma phi<prn><nom><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
      • ia phi<prn><acc><pl><p2> ↔ 'you'
      • da phi<prn><ins><pl><p2> ↔ 'by you'
      • ia or ha phi<prn><dat><pl><p2> ↔ 'to you'
      • na phi<prn><abl><pl><p2> ↔ 'from you'
      • jong phi<prn><gen><pl><p2> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours'
      • ha or sha phi<prn><loc><pl><p2> ↔ 'at, with, or in you'
      • Ah phi!<prn><voc><pl><p2> ↔ 'Oh you!'
  • Third Person Pronouns
    • Singular Pronouns Declined
      • u<prn><nom><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'he, it'; ka<prn><nom><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'she, it'
      • ia u<prn><acc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'him, it'; ia ka<prn><acc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'her, it'
      • da u<prn><ins><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'by him, it'; da ka<prn><ins><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'by her, it'
      • ia or ha u<prn><dat><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'to him, it'; ia or ha ka<prn><dat><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'to you'
      • na u<prn><abl><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'from him, it'; na ka<prn><abl><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'from her, it'
      • jong u<prn><gen><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'of him, it'; 'his, its'; jong ka<prn><gen><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers'
      • ha or sha u<prn><loc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in him, it'; ha or sha ka<prn><loc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in her, it'
      • Ah u!<prn><voc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'Oh him, it!'; Ah ka!<prn><voc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'Oh her, it!'
    • Plural Pronouns Declined
      • kior ma ki<prn><nom><pl><p3> ↔ 'they'
      • ia ki<prn><acc><pl><p3> ↔ 'them'
      • da ki<prn><ins><pl><p3> ↔ 'by them'
      • ia or ha ki<prn><dat><pl><p3> ↔ 'to them'
      • na ki<prn><abl><pl><p3> ↔ 'from them'
      • jong ki<prn><gen><pl><p3> ↔ 'of them'; 'their', 'theirs'
      • ha or sha ki<prn><loc><pl><p3> ↔ 'at, with, or in them'
  • /

Relative Pronouns

  • Singular Pronouns Declined
    • (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><nom><sg> ↔ 'who'
    • (masc) ia uba; (fem) ia kaba; (dim) ia iba<prn><acc><sg> ↔ 'whom'
    • (masc) da uba; (fem) da kaba; (dim) da iba<prn><ins><sg> ↔ 'by whom'
    • (masc) jong uba; (fem) jong kaba; (dim) jong iba<prn><gen><sg> ↔ 'whose'
  • Plural Pronouns Declined
    • kiba<prn><nom><pl> ↔ 'who'
    • ia kiba<prn><acc><pl> ↔ 'whom'
    • da kiba<prn><ins><pl> ↔ 'by whom'
    • jong kiba<prn><gen><pl> ↔ 'whose'
  • Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba

Demonstrative Pronouns

  • Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
  • [article] + -ne, -ta, -to, -tai<prn><dem> ↔ respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible)'
    • une<prn><m><dem> ↔ 'this'
    • kane<prn><f><dem> ↔ 'this'
    • ine<prn><dem> ↔ 'this (diminutive)'

Spellrelax (notes to self. Not a full section)

  • With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.

References

  • Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
  • Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.