Khasi/Grammar
From LING073
Contents
Parts of speech
Nouns
Gender and Number
- Articles 'ka' and 'u' function respectively as the feminine and masculine singular articles. They typically come before nouns.
- khun<n><sg><f> ↔ 'ka khun': 'daughter'
- khun<n><sg><m> ↔ 'u khun': 'son'
- The gender of a noun cannot be shown by the article in the plural, as the plural article is 'ki', and it carries no gender. Instead, a marker-word is often attached to indicate gender, such as the most general 'kynthei' meaning female and 'shinrang' meaning male.
- lang<n><pl><f> ↔ ki lang-kynthei:'she-goats', 'ewes'
- lang<n><pl><m> ↔ ki lang-shinrang:'he-goats', 'rams'
- There are more specific terms for some words. These specific terms are often epithets describing a feature of a male or female of such a word. For example:
- massi<n><pl><m> ↔ ki massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
- massi: 'cow'
- kyrtong: 'fat', 'strong'
- massi<n><pl><m> ↔ ki massi-kyrtong:'bulls', 'male cows'
Cases and Associated Pronouns
Khasi has no inflectional case system, but rather it distinguishes the different cases with pronoun use.
- Nominative
- The noun without any prepositions
- u briw <n><nom> ↔ 'u briw'
- Example sentence: U briw u la wan; 'The man came'
- Accusative
- Noun with and sometimes without 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa'
- u briw<n><acc> ↔ ia u briw
- Example sentence: U la shem ia u briw; 'He found the man'
- Dative
- Takes 'ha', 'sha', or 'ia'/'ya'/'ïa' (to or as)
- nga<n><dat> ↔ ha nga
- Example sentence: U la ai ha nga ia ka kitab; 'He gave me the book'
- Instrumental
- Takes 'da' (by, with)
- ka wait<n><ins> ↔ da ka wait
- Example sentence: U la phot ia la ka kti da ka wait; 'He cut his hand with an ax'
- Ablative
- Takes 'na' (from, as)
- la ing<n><abl> ↔ na la ing
- Example sentence: U Hom u la mih na la ing; 'Hom came out of his house'
- Genitive
- Takes 'jong' (of)
- ka kymi<n><gen> ↔ jong ka kymi
- Example sentence: Ka ing jong ka kymi; 'His mother's house'
- Locative
- Takes 'ha' or 'sha' (in, at, to; as)
- ing<n><loc> ↔ ha ing
- Example sentence: Ka kymi ka don ha ing; 'His mother is at home'
- Vocative
- Takes 'Ah!' (Oh) or 'Ko!' (my, our)
- Blei <voc> ↔ 'Ah Blei!'
- Example sentence: Ah Blei; 'Oh God!'
Diminutives
- In Khasi, diminutives show "endearment, smallness, inferiority, [and] contempt," according to H. Roberts.
- To form the diminutive in the singular, 'i' is typically used as the article.
- briw <n><sg> ↔ i briw: 'A dwarf'
- maw <n><sg> ↔ i maw: 'A pebble'
- ing <n><sg> ↔ i ing: 'A little house'
- In the plural, additional particles are attached, such as '-ria,' '-rit,' '-raid,' 'khun' (child). They may also be used in the singular.
- briw <n><pl> ↔ ki 'riw-raid: 'A dwarf'
- maw <n><pl> ↔ ki maw-ria: 'Pebbles'
- ing <n><pl> ↔ ki ing-rit: 'Little houses'
Morphology
Abstract Nouns
- Most abstract nouns are formed by adding the prefix 'jing' to a a verb or adjective or by applying the feminine singular article 'ka' to an adjective
- leh<n> ↔ ka jingleh: 'action'
- babha<n> ↔ ka babha: 'the good'
- Sometimes the 'ka' + adjective formation drops the 'ba' prefix found in an adjective
- suk<n> ↔ ka suk: 'happiness'
- Some words formed like abstract nouns might actually be common nouns that used to be abstract nouns.
- khang <n> ↔ ka jing khang: 'a door', lit 'a shutting'
Agentive Marker
- 'nong' attaches to verb to create a noun
- tuh<n> ↔ nongtuh: 'thief'
- behmrad<n> ↔ nongbehmrad: 'hunter'
- kha-ii<n> ↔ nongkha-ii: 'trader'
Other Prefixes
- According to Eugénie J. A. Henderson, "overt prefixes of less common occurrence include shi- ‘one'; mar- ‘facing, matching’; kat- ‘to such a degree’; kum- ‘like’; hang- ‘place where.’"
Verbs
- NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
- kyrhuh<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'kyrhuh': roar
- bam<vblex><pres><actv> ↔ 'bam': eat
Adverbs
- NOTE: Not part of 10 homework categories. Here for future reference, as it's a main part of speech.
Adjectives
- Adjectives agree with nouns.
- The adjectives typically begin with prefix 'ba'
- babha<adj> ↔ 'babha': good
- barit<adj> ↔ 'barit': small
- It may, however, not use 'ba.' In fact, there can be a difference in meaning associated with the 'ba-' prefix.
- u briw-bastad; 'a learned man'
- u briw-stad;'an astrologer'
- u soh-baiong; 'a black fruit'
- u soh-iong; 'a plum (black)'
- As can be seen, the versions without the 'ba-' prefix are more general.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparatives
- 'ba' (adj marker) + 'kham' (more) + root
- baeh<adj><comp> ↔ 'ba kham eh': hard
- Comparatives may also regularly be formed by using ia/ya/ïa, here meaning 'than.'
- Ex: Ia kane, bha kato; lit. 'than this, good that,' 'that is better than this'
Superlatives
There are many ways to form the superlative. Commonly, they can be formed as:
- Adjective + 'tam'
- babha tam<adj><sup> ↔ 'babha tam': best
- Comparative + 'tam'
- ba kham bha<sup> ↔ 'ba kham bha tam': best
- Adjective + 'kham' + 'tam'
- babha<sup> ↔ 'babha kham tam': best
- Prep phrase
- Ex: na kine bha katai; lit. 'of these, good that,' 'that is better than these'
- Superlative absolute (most extreme superlative)
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
- ba runar<sup> ↔ 'ba runar eh': most exceedingly cruel
- ba runar<sup> ↔ 'ba runar shikkadei eh': most exceedingly cruel
- Superlative + eh
- ba runar tam<sup> ↔ 'ba runar tam eh': most cruel
- ba runar kham-tam<sup> ↔ 'ba runar kham-tam-eh': most cruel
- ba runar tam-shikkadei<sup> ↔ 'ba runar tam-shikkadei eh': most exceedingly cruel
- Adjective + [shikkadei] + [eh] (choose one or both)
Prepositions
- jong<pr> ↔ 'jong': of
- ha<pr> ↔ 'ha': in, to, at, on
- ia/ya/ïa<pr> ↔ 'ia/ya/ïa': to
- na<pr> ↔ 'na': from
- Preporitions may SOMETIMES (very rarely) be prefixes
- haei<adv> ↔ 'haei': where
- hajan<adv> ↔ 'hajan': near
See noun section on cases for more detail about use, as well as pages 119-121 of H. Roberts' A Khassi Reader for more prepositions.
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
- The personal pronouns are formed by taking the nominative for the pronoun and adding a prepositional marker word. The following are the nominative forms for first, second, and third person, singular and plural.
- nga<prn><per><p1><sg><nom> ↔ 'I'
- ngi<prn><per><p1><pl><nom> ↔ 'we'
- me<prn><per><p2><sg><nom> ↔ 'you'
- phi<prn><per><p2><pl><nom> ↔ 'you (pl)'
- u<prn><per><p3><sg><nom> ↔ 'he, she, it'
- ki<prn><per><p3><pl><nom> ↔ 'they'
Prepositional Marker Words
- (Ø<pr><nom>)
- ia<pr><acc>
- da<pr><ins>
- ia or ha<pr><dat>
- na<pr><abl>
- jong<pr><gen>
- ha<pr><loc>
- ah<pr><voc>
As an example of formation:
- ia nga<acc><sg><p1> 'me'
All Personal Pronouns Declined (summary above)
- 1st Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- nga<prn><nom><sg><p1> ↔ 'nga': I
- nga<prn><acc><sg><p1> ↔ 'ia nga': me
- nga<prn><ins><sg><p1> ↔ 'da nga': by me
- nga<prn><dat><p1><sg> ↔ 'ia or ha nga': to me
- nga<prn><abl><sg><p1> ↔ 'na nga': from me
- nga<prn><gen><sg><p1> ↔ 'jong nga': of me; my, mine
- nga<prn><loc><sg><p1> ↔ 'ha or sha nga': at, with, or in me
- nga<prn><voc><sg><p1> ↔ 'Ah ma-nga!': Oh me!
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- ngi<prn><nom><pl><p1> ↔ 'ngi or ma ngi': we
- ngi<prn><acc><pl><p1> ↔ 'ia ngi': us
- ngi<prn><ins><pl><p1> ↔ 'da ngi': by us
- ngi<prn><dat><pl><p1> ↔ 'ia or ha ngi': to us
- ngi<prn><abl><pl><p1> ↔ 'na ngi': from us
- ngi<prn><gen><pl><p1> ↔ 'jong ngi': of us; our, ours
- ngi<prn><loc><pl><p1> ↔ 'ha or sha ngi': at, with, or in us
- ngi<prn><voc><pl><p1> ↔ 'Ah ngi!': Oh we!
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Second Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- me or ma-me<prn><nom><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you': ; pha or ma-pha<prn><nom><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you':
- ia me<prn><acc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'you': ; ia pha<prn><acc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'you':
- da me<prn><ins><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'by you': ; da pha<prn><ins><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'by you':
- ia or ha me<prn><dat><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'to you': ; ia or ha pha<prn><dat><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'to you':
- na me<prn><abl><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'from you': ; na pha<prn><abl><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'from you':
- jong me<prn><gen><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours': ; jong pha<prn><gen><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours':
- ha or sha me<prn><loc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in you': ; ha or sha pha<prn><loc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in you':
- Oh me!<prn><voc><sg><p2><m> ↔ 'Oh you!': ; Ah pha!<prn><voc><sg><p2><f> ↔ 'Oh you!':
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- phior ma phi<prn><nom><pl><p2> ↔ 'you':
- ia phi<prn><acc><pl><p2> ↔ 'you':
- da phi<prn><ins><pl><p2> ↔ 'by you':
- ia or ha phi<prn><dat><pl><p2> ↔ 'to you':
- na phi<prn><abl><pl><p2> ↔ 'from you':
- jong phi<prn><gen><pl><p2> ↔ 'of you'; 'your', 'yours':
- ha or sha phi<prn><loc><pl><p2> ↔ 'at, with, or in you':
- Ah phi!<prn><voc><pl><p2> ↔ 'Oh you!':
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- Third Person Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- u<prn><nom><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'he, it': ; ka<prn><nom><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'she, it':
- ia u<prn><acc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'him, it': ; ia ka<prn><acc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'her, it':
- da u<prn><ins><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'by him, it': ; da ka<prn><ins><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'by her, it':
- ia or ha u<prn><dat><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'to him, it': ; ia or ha ka<prn><dat><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'to you':
- na u<prn><abl><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'from him, it': ; na ka<prn><abl><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'from her, it':
- jong u<prn><gen><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'of him, it'; 'his, its': ; jong ka<prn><gen><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'of her, it'; 'her, its', 'hers':
- ha or sha u<prn><loc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'at, with, or in him, it': ; ha or sha ka<prn><loc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'at, with, or in her, it':
- Ah u!<prn><voc><sg><p3><m> ↔ 'Oh him, it!': ; Ah ka!<prn><voc><sg><p3><f> ↔ 'Oh her, it!':
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- kior ma ki<prn><nom><pl><p3> ↔ 'they':
- ia ki<prn><acc><pl><p3> ↔ 'them':
- da ki<prn><ins><pl><p3> ↔ 'by them':
- ia or ha ki<prn><dat><pl><p3> ↔ 'to them':
- na ki<prn><abl><pl><p3> ↔ 'from them':
- jong ki<prn><gen><pl><p3> ↔ 'of them'; 'their', 'theirs':
- ha or sha ki<prn><loc><pl><p3> ↔ 'at, with, or in them':
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- /
Relative Pronouns
- Singular Pronouns Declined
- (masc) uba; (fem) kaba; (dim) iba<prn><nom><sg> ↔ 'who'
- (masc) ia uba; (fem) ia kaba; (dim) ia iba<prn><acc><sg> ↔ 'whom'
- (masc) da uba; (fem) da kaba; (dim) da iba<prn><ins><sg> ↔ 'by whom'
- (masc) jong uba; (fem) jong kaba; (dim) jong iba<prn><gen><sg> ↔ 'whose'
- Plural Pronouns Declined
- kiba<prn><nom><pl> ↔ 'who'
- ia kiba<prn><acc><pl> ↔ 'whom'
- da kiba<prn><ins><pl> ↔ 'by whom'
- jong kiba<prn><gen><pl> ↔ 'whose'
- Notice how the relative pronouns were formed from the case-marking preposition + 'u/ka/i' (the articles) + ba
Demonstrative Pronouns
- Demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding suffixes to the articles
- [article] + -ne, -ta, -to, -tai<prn><dem> ↔ respectively, 'this, that (out of sight, in contemplation), that (in sight), that (very far, but visible)'
- une<prn><m><dem> ↔ 'this'
- kane<prn><f><dem> ↔ 'this'
- ine<prn><dem> ↔ 'this (diminutive)'
Spellrelax (notes to self. Not a full section)
- With the 'jing' prefix, sometimes g is dropped. Furthermore, sometimes 'jing' is written as a separate word.
References
- Roberts, H. A Grammar of the Khassi Language: For the Use of Schools, Native Students, Officers and English Residents. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1891. Print.
- Henderson, Eugénie J. A. “Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi.” Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, no. 13, 1976, pp. 477–522. www.jstor.org/stable/20019169.