Navajo/Grammar
//for formatting purposes ONLY
This page is a brief documentation of Navajo grammar. It includes a part of speech classification and important morphological grammar points.
W. M. Thackston's Sorani Kurdish: A Reference Grammar was the main source used and most examples come directly from there; other sources are listed here.
Contents
Parts of Speech
Nouns
Verbs
Navajo verbs can be transitive and intransitive. The Navajo verb stem is made of a consonant-vowel or consonant-vowel-consonant. It is also in the bound form, meaning the verbs require at least one prefix. The initials of some of these stems are changed when additional prefixes are added onto the word. The stem however, is never completely absorbed by prefixes and thus it can always be identified. The stem does not change for person or number, these processes being carried out by prefixes.
- A class of stems indicate positions
- sidá<v>(one sits, stays, dwells)
- There is condition of one animate object in position
- siti<v>(one animate object lies)
- There is condition of one animal object lying
- sidá<v>(one sits, stays, dwells)
- A class of static verbs
- sitaz<v>(it is bent)
- There is condition of long object having been bent
- sinil<v>(there are several separate objects)
- there is condition of separate plurality
- sitaz<v>(it is bent)
Adjectives
Navajo adjectives <adj> exist mainly as descriptive functions within inhering to the verb stem. Forms like this are not modified by conjunction or comparison. However, some of these adjectives resemble verbs because they have static and progressive forms.
- 'adi<adj> ↔ 'adi (becoming worthy, desiring, outstanding, rare)
- si<adj> ↔ si (cheerful, hopeful, reassuring, disastrous, harmful)
- yá<adj> ↔ yá (out of place, shameful, embarrassing)
Pronouns
Navajo has a highly developed pronominal system. The relationship between the various types of pronouns is very close, and are differentiated more significantly through prefixes and pragmatic forms that are more greatly affected by contractions:
- yishtin<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ yishtin "I freeze"
- yiitin<prn><pers><p1><pl> ↔ yiitin "we (2+) freeze"
- nitin<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ nitin "you freeze"
- wohtin<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ wohtin "you (2+) freeze"
- yitin<prn><pers><p3><sg and pl> ↔ yitin "he/she/it/they freeze"
- jitin<prn><pers><p4><sg and pl> ↔ jitin "he/she/they freeze"
- atin<prn><pers><p4><sg and pl> ↔ atin "someone/something freezes"
The table above shows the imperfective mode and shows the subject prefixes for the word "to freeze".
Adverbs
There are many Navajo adverbs that modify clauses, sentences, and phrases.
- aadę́ę́ʼ<adv> ↔ aadę́ę́ʼ (from there)
- ádingo<adv> ↔ ádingo (there being none)
- ííłníiʼjįʼ<adv> ↔ ííłníiʼjįʼ (to the middle)
Postpositions
Navajo uses a series of postpositions, and thus all spatial and most of the other relations are expressed using the possessive prefix, along with the postposition.
- biyaa<pr> ↔ biyaa (under it)
- bikááʼ<pr> ↔ bikááʼ (on it)
- bitah<pr> ↔ bitah (among it)
These postpositions can be combined with any prefix to create a single word.
Conjunctions
There are Navajo words that connect words, phrases, and/or clauses together.
- jó<conjcoo> ↔ jó (since)
- léiʼ<conjcoo> ↔ léiʼ (because)
- ndi<conjcoo> ↔ ndi (but)
Classifiers
Classifiers in Navajo are located closest to the verb stem and, in most verbs, affect the transitivity of the verb in that they determine the voice and valence. The ł classifier is a causative-transitivizing prefix used for active verbs that have Ø in the classifier position. The d classifier appears in passive, mediopassive, reflexive, and reciprocal verbs that have Ø in the classifier position. The l classifier appears in passive, mediopassive, reflexive, and reciprocal verbs that come from those with an ł classifier:
- Ø<class> ↔ yibéézh (It is boiling)
- ł<class> ↔ yiłbéézh (He is boiling it)
- Ø<class> ↔ yizéés (He is singing it)
- d<class> ↔ yidéés (It is being singed)
- ł<class> ↔ néíłtsááh (He's drying it)
- l<class> ↔ náltsááh (It's being dried)
Some verbs may be used with all of the classifiers to convey different meanings. Further, classifiers in some verbs do not indicate transitivity but rather are thematic prefixes that must occur with certain verb forms.
Particles
Navajo has a variety of particles that convey information about temporality, desire, and focus. The future particles dooleeł
and doo
do not typically appear together, but some speakers find this acceptable.
- dooleeł<particle> ↔ dooleeł (Future reference time)
- doo<particle> ↔ doo (Future reference time)
- nítʼééʼ<particle> ↔ náltsááh (Past reference time)
- laanaa<particle> ↔ laanaa (Positive desire)
- lágo<particle> ↔ lágo (Negative desire)
- nítʼééʼ<particle> ↔ náltsááh (Topic/Focus Marker) //need to complete this one
Imperfective
The imperfective mode of Navajo indicates an event that has begun but is incomplete or on-going. Without any additional reference time, this mode often translates similarly to the present English tense. When the reference time is changed, it may refer to an on-going event or an event un-completed at that time, for instance, in the past or future. If it is used in the second person, it may also create the meaning of an immediate imperative. It has a distinct stem form, as well as four different prefixes. They are:
1. ni- terminative prefix in position 7 (nishááh) "I'm in the act of arriving" 2. si- stative prefix in position 7 (shishʼaah) "I'm in the act of placing a SRO (solid round object)" 3. with no prefix in position 7 (dah shishʼaah) "I'm in the act of placing a SRO (solid round object) up" 4. with either a yi- transitional or yi- semelfactive prefix in position 6 (and no prefix in position 7) (yishcha) "I'm crying"
Perfective
The perfective mode in Navajo indicates that an event has been completed. This gives it a similar connotation to the English simple past tense when referring to past events. Being a mode rather than a tense, however, it can be used to not just to refer to past events but future events too, carrying the meaning of "will have" done an action. The perfective mode has a unique verb stem form and four different prefix forms. Those forms are:
1. yí- perfective prefix with a high tone in position 7 (yíchʼid) "I scratched it" 2. ní- terminative prefix with a high tone in position 7 (níyá) "I arrived" 3. sí- stative prefix with high tone in position 7 (sélį́į́ʼ) "I roasted it" 4. yi- transitional prefix in position 6 (and Ø- in position 7) (yiizįʼ) "I stood up".
// Add examples
Usitative vs Iterative
The usitative, or customary, indicates a repetitive action that takes place customarily or habitually, whereas the iterative represents an action that occurs frequently rather than habitually.
(Water)
- ئاو<n><obj>+من<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ ئاوم
- ئاو<n><obj>+ئێمە<prn><pers><p1><pl> ↔ ئاومان
- ئاو<n><obj>+تۆ<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ئاوت
- ئاو<n><obj>+ئێوە<prn><pers><p2><pl> ↔ ئاوتان
- ئاو<n><obj>+ئەو<prn><pers><p3><sg> ↔ ئاوی
- ئاو<n><obj>+ئەوان<prn><pers><p3><pl> ↔ ئاویان
(Food)
- نان<n><obj>+من<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ نانم
- نان<n><obj>+ئێمە<prn><pers><p1><pl> ↔ نانمان
- نان<n><obj>+تۆ<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ نانت
- {{morphTest|نان<n><obj>+ئێوە<prn><pers><p2><pl>|نانتان}
- نان<n><obj>+ئەو<prn><pers><p3><sg> ↔ نانی
- نان<n><obj>+ئەوان<prn><pers><p3><pl> ↔ نانیان
(if I use '+' between the two it flips the RTL script for some odd markup reason)
Future
The Future mode is the most tense-like of the Navajo modes. It is an inflected form, occurring in the form of a prefix. However, it cannot be fully classified as a tense, as it contrasts with other modes that are not tense-like, and a lack of this mode gives no information about the future. Moreover, it may only occur with event words. The future tense is made up of the progressive prefix, yi
, and the inceptive prefix, di
.
To Go
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p1><sg> ↔ دەچم (I am going)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p1><pl> ↔ دەچین (we are going)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p2><sg> ↔ دەچیت (you are going)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p2><pl> ↔ دەچن (you(pl.) are going)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p3><sg> ↔ دەچێت (he/she/it is going)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><p3><pl> ↔ دەچن (they are going)
Aspects and Subaspects
The imperative form is derived by taking the present stem of the verb and prefixing with 'ب'. For the second person plural, there should also be 'ن'.
Singular Imperative
- خواردن<v><tv><imp><p2><sg> ↔ بخۆ (eat)
- چوون<v><iv><imp><p2><sg> ↔ بچۆ (go)
- هاتن<v><iv><imp><p2><sg> ↔ وەرە (come) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v><tv><imp><p2><sg> ↔ بهێنە (bring)
Plural Imperative
- خواردن<v><tv><imp><p2><pl> ↔ بخۆن (eat)
- چوون<v><iv><imp><p2><pl> ↔ بچن (go)
- هاتن<v><iv><imp><p2><pl> ↔ وەرن (come) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v>Template:TagCategory:Sp22 students<imp><p2><pl> ↔ بهێنن (bring)
Negation
Negation in Navajo is formed similarly to that of Korean, with a negation frame of the particles do
and dah
and the positive statement being placed between the two. However, sometimes, dah
is omitted from the negation frame. The negation frame combined with various aspects of Navajo grammar leads to different meaning, such as a negative imperative (when combined with fourth person), inability (with the optative mood), and so on.
// Add examples
- <v><tv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەکرد (did not eat)
- چوون<v><iv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەچوو (did not go)
- هاتن<v><iv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەهات (did not come) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v><tv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەهێنا (did not bring)
CHANGE
To negate an past tense verb, simply prefix with "نە".
- خواردن<v><tv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەکرد (did not eat)
- چوون<v><iv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەچوو (did not go)
- هاتن<v><iv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەهات (did not come) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v><tv><past><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نەهێنا (did not bring)
Present Verbs
For present verbs, replace the prefix "دە" with "نا".
- خواردن<v><tv><npast><neg><sg><p3> ↔ ناخوات (is not eating)
- چوون<v><iv><npast><neg><sg><p3> ↔ ناچێت (is not going)
- هاتن<v><iv><npast><neg><sg><p3> ↔ نایەت (is not coming) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v><tv><npast><neg><sg><p3> ↔ ناهێنێت (is not bringing)
Imperative Verbs
To negate an imperative verb, replace the prefix 'ب' with "مە". For transitive verbs, add 'ی' just before the verb stem.
- خواردن<v><tv><imp><neg><sg><p3> ↔ مەیخۆ (don't eat it)
- چوون<v><iv><imp><neg><sg><p3> ↔ مەچۆ (don't go)
- هاتن<v><iv><imp><neg><sg><p3> ↔ مەیە (don't come) *this is an irregular form
- هێنان<v><tv><imp><neg><sg><p3> ↔ مەیهێنە (don't bring it)
CHANGE
Comparative adjectives are always formed by adding the "تر" suffix. The superlative is formed by adding "ترین".
Comparative Forms
- گەورە<adj><comp> ↔ گەورەتر (larger)
- گەرم<adj><comp> ↔ گەرمتر (warmer)
- چاک<adj><comp> ↔ چاکتر (better)
Superlative Forms
- گەورە<adj><sup> ↔ گەورەترین (largest)
- گەرم<adj><sup> ↔ گەرمترین (warmest)
- چاک<adj><sup> ↔ چاکترین (best)
Possession
To form possessives in Navajo, the personal pronoun prefixes get attached to the given noun. The pronouns often appear without change, though in some cases their final vowel may have a high tone. The personal pronouns are displayed below:
Singular Dual Plural First shi- nihi- danihi- Second ni- nihi- danihi- Third bi- Fourth (3o) yi- Fourth (3a) ha-, hw- Indefinite (3i) a-
However, Navajo distinguishes two types of possession, that is, inalienable possession and alienable possession. The former is used for relatives, body parts, homes, and the like, requiring the use of a personal pronoun or the 3rd person indefinite prefix a-
to convey the meaning of "someone's (noun)" for these words to occur. The latter is used in cases not within the realm of inalienable possession.
- ayo<n> ↔ ayo (someone's tooth)
- atsi<n> ↔ atsi (someone's head. hair)
- atso<n> ↔ atso (someone's tongue)
- atsolatah<cn> ↔ atsolatah (tip of someone's tongue)
- ayoctlah<cn> ↔ ayoctlah (inside of someone's cheek)
- atsolatah<cn> ↔ shílaʼ (my hand)
- ayoctlah<cn> ↔ nihílaʼ (our hand)
- ayoctlah<cn> ↔ shimá (my mother)
- ayoctlah<cn> ↔ amá. (someone's mother)
- ayoctlah<cn> ↔ bimá (his/her mother)
// might need to edit these tags in that the possessive form is the base modifying the output
Irregular Verbs
In Navajo, there are certain verbs that do not follow the verb rules. Of these verbs, the most irregular features are phonetic. Below are some examples of these verbs that change the stem initial:
- decál<v><future> ↔ {{{2}}} (I shall go)
- yicáh<v><present> ↔ {{{2}}} (I am going)
- dinál<v><future> ↔ {{{2}}} (you will go)
- nnáh<v><present> ↔ {{{2}}} (you are going)