Navajo/Grammar

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//We just gained access to a more comprehensive file on Navajo verbs and are adding those examples with base forms

This page is a brief documentation of Navajo grammar. It includes a part of speech classification and important morphological grammar points.

Parts of Speech

Nouns

Navajo nouns are not inflected for number nor case, and, because Navajo is such a verb-centric language, with much of the needed information to convey what one intends to say, they occur much less frequently than in, for instance, English. There are two three types of nouns in Navajo, simple nouns, nouns derived from verbs, and compound nouns. Simple nouns may be prefixed by a possessive prefix, whereas nouns derived from verbs may not. To derive a noun from a verb, the verb may either be nominalized with an enclitic, í, or simply appear syntactically as a noun without a nominalizer.

Compound nouns may be formed in many different ways:

 1. A noun plus a noun, such as tséso̜' (stone-star) "glass"
 2. A noun plus a postposition, such as łeeghi' (soil|within) "underground"
 3. A noun plus a verb stem, such as tł'ohchin (grass|smells) "onion"
 4. A noun plus a verb, such as tsinaa'eeł (wood|it-floats-about) "boat"
 5. A postposition plus a verb, such as bá'ólta'í (for-her|studying-takes-place|the-one) "teacher"
 6. A miscellaneous category assembled through various means and combinations of nominalization and connection

Simple Nouns

  • béésh<n> ↔ béésh (flint, metal, knife)
  • hééł<n> ↔ hééł (pack)
  • ba̜a̜s<n> ↔ ba̜a̜s (hoop)
  • chaa'<n> ↔ hééł (beaver)
  • chííl<n> ↔ chííl (snowstorm)
  • chizh<n> ↔ chizh (firewood, wood)
  • ch'ał<n> ↔ ch'ał (frog)
  • dił<n> ↔ dił (blood)
  • dló̜ó̜'<n> ↔ dló̜ó̜' (praire dog)
  • sis<n> ↔ sis (belt)

Derived Nouns

  • náʼoolkiłí<n> ↔ náʼoolkiłí (lt. thing that moves slowly in a circle)
  • hataałii<n> ↔ bibéézh (lt. thing that sings)
  • chʼéʼétiin<n> ↔ chʼéʼétiin (exit, doorway)
  • hoozdo<n> ↔ hoozdo (Phoenix, Arizona (when used as verb, "place is hot")

Verbs

Navajo verbs can be transitive and intransitive and are formed as stems to which affixes are attached. The Navajo verb stem is the semantic hub of the verb, carrying the meaning and even details about the action, such as what type of object is acted upon, the number of objects acted upon, and other things. Its structure is consonant-vowel or consonant-vowel-consonant. While it will always retain this phonological structure, the stem may not remain the same in all forms of a verb. In fact, the primary way to change the mode or aspect of a verb is the alter its stem. It is also in the bound form, meaning the verbs require at least one prefix. The initials of some stems also change when additional prefixes are added onto the word due to phonological processes. The stem does not change for person or number, these processes being carried out by prefixes.

Adjectives

Navajo adjectives are often 3rd person neuter forms of verbs describing state, condition, or quality. There are also adjectival affixes that appear as suffixes on nouns, as well as those that appear in orthography as separate words

Adjectival Suffixes of Base Nouns

  • dinétsoh<n> ↔ dinétsoh ([diné + tsoh] big man)
  • 'asdzá̜á̜ts'ósí<n> ↔ 'asdzá̜á̜ts'ósí (['asdzá̜á̜ + ts'ósí] slender woman)
  • dinédííl<n> ↔ dinédííl ([diné+dííl] tall man)

Pronouns

Navajo's verb complex is so complete through affixes that the inclusion of pronouns elsewhere in the sentence is unnecessary. However, their appearance is still possible, and they are visible within possessive prefixes, as person morphemes within verbs, and in other such places. Like English, there are similar, but different, forms of these pronouns when referring to possession (for instance, "me"|"mine").

When attaching the pronouns to nouns, the root base form is often evident, with slight phonetic alteration in the surfacing form. However, there exist two more variants of the third person prefix. They represent indefiniteness and obliquative (though, the latter usually occurs attached to verbs). A reciprocal form also appears as well.

When attaching the pronouns to prepositions, these forms are visible, as well as another reflexive form. Though this form appears very similarly to that of the indefinite. It is semantically, as well as in its surface form sometimes, appearing as 'ád instead of . This appears to be a phonological process, as it occurs when followed by another "á".

Independent Pronouns

First person
  • shí<prn><pers><p1><sg> ↔ shí ("I")
  • nihí<prn><pers><p1><du> ↔ nihí ("we" [2])
  • danihí<prn><pers><p1><dist> ↔ danihí ("we" [distributive])
Second person
  • ni<prn><pers><p2><sg> ↔ ni ("you")
  • ni<prn><pers><p2><du> ↔ nihí ("you" [2])
  • danihí<prn><ind><p2><dist> ↔ danihí ("you" [distributive])
Third person
  • <prn><pers><p3><sg> ↔ bí ("he, she, it")
  • <prn><pers><p3><du> ↔ bí ("they" [2])
  • daabí<prn><ind><p3><dist> ↔ daabí ("they" [distributive])
Third person (less definite, more polite)
  • <prn><pers><pers><p3><sg> ↔ hó ("he, she, one")
  • <prn><pers><pers><p3><du> ↔ hó ("they" [2])
  • daahó<prn><pers><ind><p3><dist> ↔ daahó ("they" [distributive])

Noun-prefixed Pronouns

3rd Person Obliquative
  • yi<prn><ind> ↔ yi ("3p to 3p's something"). //how to tag this?
3rd Person Indefinite
  • <prn><ind> ↔ 'á ("Someone's")
3rd Person Reciprocal
  • 'áhíł<prn><rec> ↔ 'áhíł ("Each other's")

Postposition-prefixed Pronouns

  • <prn><ref> ↔ 'á ("-self")

There are also many demonstrative pronouns, some even surfacing as prefixes to nouns.

Demonstrative Pronouns

  • díí<prn><dem> ↔ díí ("this, these")
  • 'éii<prn><dem> ↔ 'éii ("that, those" [close at hand and visible])
  • ńléí<prn><dem> ↔ ńléí ("yonder one")
  • 'éí<prn><dem> ↔ 'éí ("that, those" [remote and invisible])

There is also an array of interrogative pronouns. Like some of the aforementioned demonstrative pronouns, many interrogative pronouns surface as prefixes attached to other morphemes.

Adverbs

There are many Navajo adverbs that modify clauses, sentences, and phrases.

  • 'adá̜á̜dá̜á̜'<adv> ↔ 'adá̜á̜dá̜á̜' (yesterday)
  • 'ałdó'<adv> ↔ 'ałdó' (also, too [my mother saw him too])
  • 'ayóí<adv> ↔ 'ayóí (remarkably, exceedingly)
  • dó'<adv> ↔ 'áko (too, also [my mother and I too])
  • k'adé̜e̜<adv> ↔ k'adé̜e̜ (nearly, about [it is nearly noon])
  • k'sasdá̜á̜'<adv> ↔ k'sasdá̜á̜' (almost, nearly [I almost died])
  • łáháhda<adv> ↔ łáháhda (rarely, seldom)
  • łahda<adv> ↔ łahda (sometimes)
  • łeh<adv> ↔ łeh (usually, customarily)
  • shí̜í̜<adv> ↔ shí̜í̜ (probably)
  • t'ah<adv> ↔ łeh (still, yet)
  • t'i̜i̜hdígo<adv> ↔ t'i̜i̜hdígo (a little, a bit)
  • yiská̜a̜go<adv> ↔ yiská̜a̜go (tomorrow)

Postpositions

Navajo uses a series of postpositions, and thus all spatial and most of the other relations are expressed using the possessive prefix, along with the postposition.

  • ch'á̜á̜h<n><px3sg> ↔ bich'á̜á̜h (in front of him, in his way)
  • ch'i̜'<n><px3sg> ↔ bich'i̜' (to it, toward it)
  • deijígo<n><px3sg> ↔ bideijígo (above it)
  • ghá<n><px3sg> ↔ bighá (through it, penetrating it)
  • káá<n><px3sg> ↔ bikáá (over its surface, above it)
  • kéé<n><px3sg> ↔ bikéé (behind it, in its footsteps)
  • ik'i<n><px3sg> ↔ bik'i (on it, on its surface)
  • naa<n><px3sg> ↔ binaa (around it)
  • nahji'<n><px3sg> ↔ binahji' (against it)
  • lá̜a̜ji'<n><px3sg> ↔ bilá̜a̜ji' (in front of it, ahead of it)
  • naashii<n><px3sg> ↔ binaashii (opposite it)
  • <n><px3sg> ↔ bine' (in it)
  • ta'<n><px3sg> ↔ bita' (between them)
  • yaa<n><px3sg> ↔ biyaa (under it, below it)

Conjunctions

There are Navajo words that connect words, phrases, and/or clauses together.

  • <cnjcoo> ↔ jó (since)
  • léiʼ<cnjcoo> ↔ léiʼ (because)
  • ndi<cnjcoo> ↔ ndi (but)
  • doodaii'<cnjcoo> ↔ doodaii' (or, or else)
  • 'áádóó<cnjcoo> ↔ 'áádóó (and then)
  • 'áko<cnjcoo> ↔ 'áko (then, so then, so)
  • dóó<cnjcoo> ↔ dóó (and)

Classifiers

Classifiers in Navajo are located closest to the verb stem and, in most verbs, affect the transitivity of the verb in that they determine the voice and valence. The ł classifier is a causative-transitivizing prefix used for active verbs that have Ø in the classifier position. The d classifier appears in passive, mediopassive, reflexive, and reciprocal verbs that have Ø in the classifier position. The l classifier appears in passive, mediopassive, reflexive, and reciprocal verbs that come from those with an ł classifier:

  • Ø - yibéézh (It is boiling)
  • ł - yiłbéézh (He is boiling it)
  • Ø - yizéés (He is singing it)
  • d - yidéés (It is being singed)
  • ł - néíłtsááh (He's drying it)
  • l - náltsááh (It's being dried)

Some verbs may be used with all of the classifiers to convey different meanings. Further, classifiers in some verbs do not indicate transitivity but rather are thematic prefixes that must occur with certain verb forms.

Particles

Navajo has a variety of particles that convey information about temporality, desire, and focus. The future particles dooleeł and doo do not typically appear together, but some speakers find this acceptable.

  • dooleeł<part><fut> ↔ dooleeł (Future reference time)
  • doo<part><fut> ↔ doo (Future reference time)
  • nítʼééʼ<part><past> ↔ náltsááh (Past reference time)
  • laanaa<part> ↔ laanaa (Positive desire)
  • lágo<part> ↔ lágo (Negative desire)
  • 'éí<part> ↔ (Topic/Focus Marker)
  • do-da<part><neg> ↔ do-da (Negation frame)

Imperfective

The imperfective mode of Navajo indicates an event that has begun but is incomplete or on-going. Without any additional reference time, this mode often translates similarly to the present English tense. When the reference time is changed, it may refer to an on-going event or an event un-completed at that time, for instance, in the past or future. If it is used in the second person, it may also create the meaning of an immediate imperative. It has a distinct stem form, as well as four different prefixes. They are:

 1. ni- terminative prefix in position 7 (nishááh) "I'm in the act of arriving"
 2. si- stative prefix in position 7 (shishʼaah) "I'm in the act of placing a SRO (solid round object)"
 3. with no prefix in position 7 (dah shishʼaah) "I'm in the act of placing a SRO (solid round object) up" 
 4. with either a yi- transitional or yi- semelfactive prefix in position 6 (and no prefix in position 7) (yishcha) "I'm crying"
  • yííł<v><tv><aa><impf><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ habéshhííł (I move [it] by pushing)
  • łchxééh<v><tv><aa><impf><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ habiishchxééh (I am honking [it] lt. I am causing it to cry over and over)
  • ńdááh<v><iv><ia><impf><sg><p1> ↔ ńdiishdááh (I am walking, going [with prefix meaning arise])

Perfective

The perfective mode in Navajo indicates that an event has been completed. This gives it a similar connotation to the English simple past tense when referring to past events. Being a mode rather than a tense, however, it can be used to not just to refer to past events but future events too, carrying the meaning of "will have" done an action. The perfective mode has a unique verb stem form and four different prefix forms. Those forms are:

 1. yí- perfective prefix with a high tone in position 7 (yíchʼid) "I scratched it"
 2. ní- terminative prefix with a high tone in position 7 (níyá) "I arrived"
 3. sí- stative prefix with high tone in position 7 (sélį́į́ʼ) "I roasted it"
 4. yi- transitional prefix in position 6 (and Ø- in position 7) (yiizįʼ) "I stood up". 
  • lgásh<v><tv><aa><perf><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ 'ádeshghash (I [completed action] bit myself)
  • ldlóósh<v><iv><aa><perf><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ ch'íníshdloozh (I [completed action] went out on all fours)
  • łkááh<v><tv><aa><perf><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ ch'íníłkáá' (I [completed action] tracked its trail out horizontally)

Optative

The optative mode expresses positive or negative desire to perform a given action. It is used in tandem with the aforementioned particles corresponding to either desire. With certain verbs, the interpretation is also an imperative.

  • łzááł<v><iv><aa><opt><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ ch'óossááł (I wish to float through the air)
  • łzííł<v><iv><aa><opt><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ ch'óossííł (I wish to grind it coarse)
  • ø'éésh<v><tv><aa><opt><sg><p1><o_pl> ↔ ch'óosh'éésh (I wish to lead them)

Future

The Future mode is the most tense-like of the Navajo modes. It is an inflected form, occurring in the form of a prefix. However, it cannot be fully classified as a tense, as it contrasts with other modes that are not tense-like, and a lack of this mode gives no information about the future. Moreover, it may only occur with event words. The future tense is made up of the progressive prefix, yi, and the inceptive prefix, di.

  • łjooł<v><iv><aa><fut><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ bínéishjooł (I will add to it [wool, loose hay])
  • dch'ish<v><iv><aa><fut><sg><p1><o_sg> ↔ 'ádideeshch'ish (I will grate myself, I will cut myself)
  • ø'eeł<v><iv><aa><fut><sg><p1> ↔ ch'ínísh'eeł (I will float out horizontally)

Negation

You can't have more than one form in a morphTest. It's good to have example sentences here, but you'll need to format things a little differently. -JNW

Negation in Navajo is formed similarly to that of Korean, with a negation frame of the particle doo and the enclitic da and the positive statement being placed between the two. However, sometimes, da is omitted from the negation frame. The negation frame combined with various aspects of Navajo grammar leads to different meaning, such as a negative imperative (when combined with fourth person), inability (with the optative mood), and so on.

// Ask how to tag negation frame

  • doo <v><tv><perf><neg><sg><p3> ↔ Gad doo dit’in da (it isn't I)
  • Hérii hanii dibé nayiisnii’, Sirii ga’<v><iv><perf><neg><sg><p3> ↔ Hérii hanii dibé nayiisnii’, Sirii ga’ (It is not Harry who bought the sheep, it was Siri.)
  • Doo yichaada<v><iv><impf><neg><sg><p3> ↔ Doo yichaada (S/ he is not crying)

Adjective Comparison

In Navajo, there is no direct equivalent to the English "great, greater, greatest" comparison structure. This meaning is reached by attaching the postpositions -lááh (beyond), -'oh (less than), or placing the word 'aghá/'agháadi (beyond-anything) before the verb (superlative).

  • lááh<n><px3sg> ↔ bilááh (more than 3psg [beyond it])
  • 'oh<n><px3sg> ↔ biyaa (under it, below it)
  • 'aghá<adv> ↔ 'aghá (beyond anything)
  • 'agháadi<adv> ↔ 'agháadi (beyond anything)

Possession

To form possessives in Navajo, the personal pronoun prefixes get attached to the given noun. The pronouns often appear without change, though in some cases their final vowel may have a high tone. The personal pronouns are displayed below:

Singular Dual Plural
First shi- nihi- danihi-
Second ni- nihi- danihi-
Third bi-
Fourth (3o) yi-
Fourth (3a) ha-, hw-
Indefinite (3i) a-

However, Navajo distinguishes two types of possession, that is, inalienable possession and alienable possession. The former is used for relatives, body parts, homes, and the like, requiring the use of a personal pronoun or the 3rd person indefinite prefix a- to convey the meaning of "someone's (noun)" for these words to occur. The latter is used in cases not within the realm of inalienable possession.

  • łeezh<n><px1sg> ↔ shileezh (my soil)
  • hééł<n><px1sg> ↔ shighéél (my pack)
  • béésh<n><px1sg> ↔ shibéézh (my knife)
  • so̜'<n><px1sg> ↔ sizo̜' (my star)
  • sis<n><px1sg> ↔ siziiz (my belt)
  • hílaʼ<n><px1sg> ↔ shílaʼ (my hand)
  • hílaʼ<n><px1pl> ↔ nihílaʼ (our hand)
  • <n><px1sg> ↔ shimá (my mother)
  • <n><px3> ↔ amá (someone's mother) //This is more so indefinite so how to tag?
  • <n><px3> ↔ bimá (his/her mother)
  • k'aa'<n><px1sg> ↔ shik'a' (my arrow)
  • ts'aa'<n><px1sg> ↔ sits'aa' (my basket)
  • <n><px1sg> ↔ shito' (my water)
  • tsé<n><px1sg> ↔ sitse' (my stone)

Imperatives

Navajo has a variety of ways of forming imperatives despite having no definite imperative form. Positive imperatives may be formed by using the future tense to convey the meaning of an action someone must do, the imperfective when the act is to be done immediately, and the optative when the action is to be carried out in the proximate future, as well as a negative sense.

Future Imperatives

  • cha<v><iv><fut><sg><2p> ↔ dííchah (cry! [you will cry])
  • gish<v><tv><fut><sg><2p> ↔ díígish (cut it! [you will cut it])
  • yíbeeɫ<v><tv><fut><sg><2p> ↔ yídííbeeɫ (pick berries! [you will pick berries])

Imperfective Imperatives

  • cha<v><iv><impf><sg><2p> ↔ nicha (cry! [you are crying])
  • teeh<v><iv><impf><sg><2p> ↔ níteeh (cut it! [you will cut it])
  • beeɫ<v><iv><fut><sg><2p> ↔ yídííbeeɫ (pick berries! [you will pick berries])