Kalmyk/Grammar

Parts of Speech

The main parts of speech in Kalmyk are: nouns, pronouns, numerals, postpositions, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, conjunctions, particles, and interjections.

Parts of Speech Examples

Tag	Part of Speech	Example	Gloss
<n>	noun	така	hen
<prn>	pronoun	ен	this
<num>	numeral	негн	one
<post>	postposition	тал	(to the) side (of)
<adj>	adjective	хагсу	dry
<adv>	adverb	әрә	barely, somehow
<v>	verb	бəə	to be
<conj>	conjunction	болун	and
<ptcl>	particle	билə	was
<ij>	interjection	Чавас	eh

Nouns

The tag for nouns should be <n>.

Noun Cases

Nouns in Kalmyk have the following suffixally marked cases: genitive, accusative, dative, ablative, instrumental, comitative, possessive, and directive. The tag for each case are shown below.

Genitive

The tag for the genitive case is <gen>.

• The genetive suffix is -н, which often appears with the preceding connecting vowel и after a consonant stem.
  
  • така<n><gen> ↔ такан ("hen")
  • школ<n><gen> ↔ школин ("school")
  • тег<n><gen> ↔ теегин ("steppe")

• After monosyllabic double-vowel stems, the connective consonant һ comes before и/ин.
  • дүү<n><gen> ↔ дүүһин ("younger brother")

• After original nasal stems, the suffix variant -а/ə is used.
  • модн<n><gen> ↔ модна ("tree")
  • хөн<n><gen> ↔ хөөнə ("sheep")

Accusative

The tag for the accusative case is <acc>.

• The accusative suffix is -г, with the preceding connecting vowel и after a consonant stem.
  
  • така<n><acc> ↔ такаг ("hen")
  • яма<n><acc> ↔ ямаг ("goat")
  • мал<n><acc> ↔ малиг ("cattle")
• The whole suffix is ыг when the stem ends in one of the following consonants: л, н, д, т в.
  
  • хотн<n><acc> ↔ хотныг ("village")
  • хад<n><acc> ↔ хадыг ("rock")

Dative

The tag for the dative case is <dat>.

• The dative suffix is -д after stems with vowel endings and stems that end in the sonorant consonants л, м, н, ң.
  • мөрн<n><dat> ↔ мөрнд ("horse")
  • темән<n><dat> ↔ темәнд ("camel")
  • сам<n><dat> ↔ самд ("scallop")

• The dative suffix is -т after stems that end in obstruent consonants and stems that end in с, ш.
  • нөкр<n><dat> ↔ нөкрт ("friend")
  • таг<n><dat> ↔ тагт ("shelf")
  • багш<n><dat> ↔ багшт ("teacher")

Ablative

The tag for the ablative case is <abl>.

• The ablative suffix is -ас/əс after single-vowel stems.
  • усн<n><abl> ↔ уснас ("water")
  • дәр<n><abl> ↔ дәрəс ("powder")

• -һ precedes the suffix after double-vowel stems.
  • ноха<n><abl> ↔ нохаһас ("dog")
  • төгə<n><abl> ↔ төгəһəс ("wheel")

• г precedes the suffix after the consonant ң.
  • аң<n><abl> ↔ аңгас ("game")
  • Басң<n><abl> ↔ Басңгас ("Friday")

Instrumental

The tag for the instrumental case is <ins>.

The instrumental suffix is -ар/əр and -һ comes before the suffix for double-vowel stems.

• мөсн<n><ins> ↔ мөснар ("ice")
• һар<n><ins> ↔ һарар ("hand")
• төгә<n><ins> ↔ төгәһар ("wheel")

Comitative

The tag for the comitative case is <com>.

The comitative suffix is -ла/лə .

• эк<n><com> ↔ эклə ("mother")
• күүкн<n><com> ↔ күүкнлə ("girl")
• темән<n><com> ↔ темәнлə ("camel")

Possessive

The tag for the possessive case is <pos>.

The possessive suffix is -та/тə.

• керм<n><pos> ↔ кермтə ("squirrel")
• гер<n><pos> ↔ гертə ("house")
• темән<n><com> ↔ темәнтə ("camel")

Directive

The tag for the directive case is <dir>.

The directive suffix is -ур/үр after single-vowel and consonant stems, and -һур/һүр after double-vowel stems.

• балһсн<n><dir> ↔ балһснур ("city")
• ваһн<n><dir> ↔ ваһнур ("pillar")
• ац<n><dir> ↔ ацур ("game")

Possessive Suffixes

Possessive suffixes can be added to the noun stem. The suffixes can be categorized by number and person:

• first person singular possessive <px1sg>: -м
• second person singular possessive <px2sg>: -чи
• first person plural possessive <px1pl>: -мдн
• second person plural possessive <px2pl>: -тн
• third person possessive (singular or plural) <px3sp>: -нь

For normal stems, the suffixes can be added without any modification to the stem.

• гер<n><px2pl> ↔ гертн ("house")
• би<n><px2sg> ↔ бичи ("me (of yours)")

For stems with -н endings, the н is dropped for the first person singular, first person plural, and third person.

• көвүн<n><px2sg> ↔ көвүнчи ("son")
• көвүн<n><px1pl> ↔ көвүнмдн ("son")

Pronouns

The tag for pronouns should be <prn>.

Personal Pronouns

The tag for personal pronouns should be <pers>. Personal pronouns in Kalmyk can be categorized by person (person (first person <p1> or second person <p2>), number (singular <sg> or plural <pl>). For singular forms, there is a formality distinction (formal <for> or informal{{|inf}}). For plurals, there is an exclusivity distinction (exclusive <exc> or inclusive <inf> ). They also vary according to the noun cases specified above in the Noun Cases section + the nominative case <nom>.

Singular Personal Pronouns

Case	First Person	Second Person (informal)	Second Person (formal)
nom.	би	чи	та
gen.	мини	чини	тана
acc.	намаг	чамаг	таниг
dat.	намд/нанд	чамд	танд
abl.	намас/нанас	чамас	танас
ins.	намар/нанап	чамар	танар
com.	намла/нанла	чамла	танла
pos.	намта/нанта	чамта	танта
dir.	намур/нанур	чамур	танур

Plural Personal Pronouns

Case	First Person (inclusive)	First Person (exclusive)	Second Person
nom.	бидн	мадн	тадн
gen.	мана	мадна	тадна
acc.	маниг	мадниг	тадниг
dat.	манд	маднд	таднд
abl.	манас	маднас	таднас
ins.	манар	маднар	таднар
com.	манла	маднла	таднла
pos.	манта	маднта	таднта
dir.	манур	маднур	таднур

Singular - First Person

• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><nom> ↔ би (first person singular nominative)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><gen> ↔ мини (first person singular genitive)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><acc> ↔ намаг (first person singular accusative)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><dat> ↔ намд/нанд (first person singular dative)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><abl> ↔ намас/нанас (first person singular ablative)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><ins> ↔ намар/нанап (first person singular instrumental)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><com> ↔ намла/нанла (first person singular comitative)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><pos> ↔ намта/нанта (first person singular possessive)
• би<prn><pers><p1><sg><dir> ↔ намур/нанур (first person singular directive)

Singular - Second Person Informal

• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><nom> ↔ чи (second person singular informal nominative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><gen> ↔ чини (second person singular informal genitive)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><acc> ↔ чамаг (second person singular informal accusative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><dat> ↔ чамд (second person singular informal dative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><abl> ↔ чамас (second person singular informal ablative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><ins> ↔ чамар (second person singular informal instrumental)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><com> ↔ чамла (second person singular informal comitative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><pos> ↔ чамта (second person singular informal possessive)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><dir> ↔ чамур (second person singular informal directive)

Singular - Second Person Formal

• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><nom> ↔ та (second person singular formal nominative)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><gen> ↔ тана (second person singular formal genitive)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><acc> ↔ таниг (second person singular formal accusative)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><dat> ↔ танд (second person singular formal dative)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><abl> ↔ танас (second person singular formal ablative)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><ins> ↔ танар (second person singular formal instrumental)
• та<prn><pers><p2><sg><for><com> ↔ танла (second person singular formal comitative)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><pos> ↔ танта (second person singular formal possessive)
• чи<prn><pers><p2><sg><inf><dir> ↔ танур (second person singular formal directive)

Plural - First Person Inclusive

• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><nom> ↔ бидн (first person plural inclusive nominative)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><gen> ↔ мана (first person plural inclusive genitive)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><acc> ↔ маниг (first person plural inclusive accusative)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><dat> ↔ манд (first person plural inclusive dative)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><abl> ↔ манас (first person plural inclusive ablative)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><ins> ↔ манар (first person plural inclusive instrumental)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><com> ↔ манла (first person plural inclusive comitative)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><pos> ↔ манта (first person plural inclusive possessive)
• бидн<prn><pers><p1><pl><inc><dir> ↔ манур (first person plural inclusive directive)

Plural - First Person Exclusive

• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><nom> ↔ мадн (first person plural exclusive nominative)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><gen> ↔ мадна (first person plural exclusive genitive)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><acc> ↔ мадниг (first person plural exclusive accusative)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><dat> ↔ маднд (first person plural exclusive dative)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><abl> ↔ маднас (first person plural exclusive ablative)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><ins> ↔ маднар (first person plural exclusive instrumental)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><com> ↔ маднла (first person plural exclusive comitative)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><pos> ↔ маднта (first person plural exclusive possessive)
• мадн<prn><pers><p1><pl><exc><dir> ↔ маднур (first person plural exclusive directive)

Plural - Second Person

• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><nom> ↔ тадн (second person plural nominative)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><gen> ↔ тадна (second person plural genitive)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><acc> ↔ тадниг (second person plural accusative)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><dat> ↔ таднд (second person plural dative)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><abl> ↔ таднас (second person plural ablative)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><ins> ↔ таднар (second person plural instrumental)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><com> ↔ таднла (second person plural comitative)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><pos> ↔ таднта (second person plural possessive)
• тадн<prn><pers><p2><pl><dir> ↔ таднур (second person plural directive)

Numerals

The tag for numerals should be <num>.

Cardinals

The tag for cardinal numbers is <card>. They are:

• негн<num><card> ↔ негн ("one")
• хойр<num><card> ↔ хойр ("two")
• һурвн<num><card> ↔ һурвн ("three")
• дөрвн<num><card> ↔ дөрвн ("four")
• тавн<num><card> ↔ тавн ("five")
• зурһан<num><card> ↔ зурһан ("six")
• долан<num><card> ↔ долан ("seven")
• нөөмн<num><card> ↔ нөөмн ("eight")
• йисн<num><card> ↔ йисн ("nine")
• арвн<num><card> ↔ арвн ("ten")

Ordinals

The ordinals <ord> are derived from the cardinals by the addition of the suffix дгч.

• негн<num><ord> ↔ негдгч ("first")
• хойр<num><ord> ↔ хойрдгч ("second")
• һурв<num><ord> ↔ һурвдгч ("third")
• дөрв<num><ord> ↔ дөрвдгч ("fourth")
• тавн<num><ord> ↔ тавдгч ("fifth")
• зурһан<num><ord> ↔ зурһадгч ("sixth")
• долан<num><ord> ↔ доладгч ("seventh")
• нөөмн<num><ord> ↔ нәәмдгч ("eighth")
• йисн<num><ord> ↔ йисдгч ("ninth")
• арвн<num><ord> ↔ арвдгч ("tenth")

Adverbs

The tag for adverbs should be <adv>.

Verbs

All verb constructions are endocentric (dependents fulfill the same linguistic function as its head), consisting of a verbal head modified by a nominal or a particle.
The tag for verbs should be <v>.

Participles

Participles can occur adnominally (as attributes), substantively (as actor/action nouns), adverbally (before an auxiliary verb), and finitely (as noun predicates).
They can be categorized as future <fut>, past <past>, and habitative/present <pres>.

Future <fut>

The futuritive participle is -х. The futuritive participle also sometimes indicates modality, expressing an action that will, can, or should take place in the future.

• ир<v><fut> ↔ ирх ("will come") *adnominal
• умш<v><fut> ↔ умшх ("can be read")
• кел<v><fut> ↔ келх ("will say")

Past <past>

The past (perfect) participle is -сн. It expresses the static effect of an action that took place in the past.

• үк<v><past> ↔ үксн ("dead")
• ор<v><past> ↔ орсн ("fallen")
• суңһагд<v><past> ↔ суңһагдсн ("elected")

Habitative/Present <pres>

The present participle is -дг. It is used for general assertions.

• ал<v><pres> ↔ алдг ("is slaughtered")
• суу<v><pres> ↔ суудг ("sit")