Tongan/Grammar

Parts of Speech

Part of Speech	Tag	Example	Gloss
noun	<n>	toa	ironwood tree
verb	<v>	hiva	sing
adjective	<adj>	malohi	hard
preposition	<prep>	ki	to, toward
adverb	<adv>	vave	quickly
conjunction	<cnjcoo> (coordinating conjunction)	pea	and
interjection	<int>	ʻĀua!	Yes, Indeed!
pronouns	<prn>	au	u (1st person singular subject pronoun in the future tense)

Nouns

• ongoongo<n><sg> ↔ ongoongo fame
• namu<n><sg> ↔ namu
• mamate<n><sg> ↔ mamate
• efu<n><sg> ↔ efu
• kaiako<n><sg> ↔ kaiako
• fili<n><sg> ↔ fili
• fale<n><sg> ↔ fale
• hele<n><sg> ↔ hele
• faifekau<n><sg> ↔ faifekau
• tohi<n><sg> ↔ tohi
• maŋa<n><sg> ↔ maŋa
• puaka<n><sg> ↔ puaka
• hoosi<n><sg> ↔ hoosi
• tangata<n><sg> ↔ tangata
• luo<n><sg> ↔ luo
• toko<n><sg> ↔ toko
• pea<n><sg> ↔ pea bear

Pluralization

Tongan has three number cases: singular, dual, and plural. The morphology of a noun does not typically change when it is in its dual or plural form. Instead, preposed dual and plural number marker are used. Irregular plural nouns also

Plural Noun Markers

• ngaahi<cl><pl> ↔ ngaahi
• kau<cl><pl> ↔ kau
• ʻu<cl><pl> ↔ ʻu
• fanga<cl><pl> ↔ fanga
• ongo<cl><pl> ↔ ongo

«ngaahi» is used to pluralize most nouns.

• fale<n><pl> ↔ ngaahi fale (house -> houses)
• hēhēfanga<n><pl> ↔ ngaahi hēhēfanga (plantain -> plantains)

«kau» is used to pluralize people nouns.

• kaiako<n><pl> ↔ kau kaiako (teacher -> teachers)
• fili<n><pl> ↔ kau fili (candidate -> candidates)
• faifekau<n><pl> ↔ kau faifekau (minister -> ministers)

«ʻu» is typically used to pluralize items that are relatively small in size.

• hele<n><pl> ↔ ʻu hele (knife -> knives)
• tohi<n><pl> ↔ ʻu tohi (book -> books)
• manga<n><pl> ↔ ʻu manga (fork -> forks)

«fanga» is a plural marker typically used to pluralize animals.

• puaka<n><pl> ↔ fanga puaka (pigs -> many pigs)
• hoosi<n><pl> ↔ fanga hoosi (horses -> many horses)
• toko<n><pl> ↔ fanga toko (cow -> many cows)

«ongo» is used as a dual marker for people, animals, or things.

• tangata<n><du> ↔ ongo tangata (men -> two men)
• puaka<n><du> ↔ ongo puaka (pigs -> two pigs)
• vaka<n><du> ↔ ongo vaka (boat -> two boats)

Irregular Noun Pluralization

Some nouns in Tongan are not pluralized by plural markers, and instead feature vowel shifts or reduplication. Their morphological change doesn't seem to be predictable based on the examples I studied.

• fefine<n><du> ↔ fāfine (woman -> women)
• tuofefine<n><du> ↔ tuofāfine (sister -> sisters)
• mokopuna<n><du> ↔ makapuna (granchild -> grandchildren)
• tehina<n><du> ↔ fototehina (younger brother/sister -> younger brothers/sisters)

Pronouns

Tongan specifies three number categories (singular, dual, and plural), and three person categories (1st person inclusive, 1st person exclusive, 2nd person, and 3rd person) for their pronouns. Pronouns can be placed both preceding a verb (preposed) or following a verb(postposed). The pronoun may also change depending on what tense the verb is in.

Cardinal Pronouns

Preposed Cardinal Pronouns

	tag	singular <sg>	dual <du>	plural <pl>
1st person exclusive	<p1>	u, ou, ku	ma	mau
1st person exclusive	<p1>	te	ta	tau
2nd person	<p2>	ke	mo	mou
3rd person	<p3>	ne	na	nau

• Note: The first person singular pronoun class has three different pronouns. u is the 1st person singular subject pronoun in the future tense, ku is only used as the 1st person singular subject pronoun in the past tense, and ou is used in the present tense.

Preposed cardinal pronouns

• ou<prn><prepd><p1><pres><exl><sg> ↔ ou
• u<prn><prepd><p1><past><exl><du> ↔ u
• ku<prn><prepd><p1><fti><exl><pl> ↔ ku

• ma<prn><prepd><p1><exl><du> ↔ ma
• mau<prn><prepd><p1><exl><pl> ↔ mau

• te<prn><prepd><p1><incl><sg> ↔ te
• ta<prn><prepd><p1><incl><du> ↔ ta
• tau<prn><prepd><p1><incl><pl> ↔ tau

• ke<prn><prepd><p2><sg> ↔ ke
• mo<prn><prepd><p2><du> ↔ mo
• mou<prn><prepd><p2><pl> ↔ mou

• ne<prn><prepd><p3><sg> ↔ ne
• na<prn><prepd><p3><du> ↔ na
• nau<prn><prepd><p3><pl> ↔ nau

	tag	singular <sg>	dual <du>	plural <pl>
1st person exclusive	<p1>	au	kimaua	kimautolu
1st person exclusive	<p1>	kita	kitaua	kitautolu
2nd person	<p2>	koe	kimoua	kimoutolu
3rd person	<p3>	ia	kinaua	kinautolu

Postposed 1st and 2nd person personal pronouns occur as reflexives after intransitive verbs (verbs with no direct object) to add emphasis.

Postposed cardinal pronouns

• au<prn><postd><p1><exl><sg> ↔ au
• kimaua<prn><postd><p1><exl><du> ↔ kimaua
• kimautolu<prn><postd><p1><exl><pl> ↔ kimautolu

• kita<prn><postd><p1><incl><sg> ↔ kita
• kitaua<prn><postd><p1><incl><du> ↔ kitaua
• kitautolu<prn><postd><p1><incl><pl> ↔ kitautolu

• koe<prn><postd><p2><sg> ↔ koe
• kimoua<prn><postd><p2><du> ↔ kimoua
• kimoutolu<prn><postd><p2><pl> ↔ kimoutolu

• ia<prn><postd><p3><sg> ↔ ia
• kinaua<prn><postd><p3><du> ↔ kinaua
• kinautolu<prn><postd><p3><pl> ↔ kinautolu

Postposed Cardinal Pronouns to add emphasis

• te u nofo<p1><prn> ↔ te u nofo au (I will stay --> I will stay (it's certain))
• te u inu<p1><prn> ↔ te u inu au (I will drink --> I will drink (it's certain))
• te u kai<p1><prn> ↔ te u kai au (I will eat --> I will eat (it's certain))

• te ke nofo<p2><prn> ↔ te ke nofo koe (You will stay --> You will stay (it's certain))
• te ke inu<p2><prn> ↔ te ke inu koe (You will drink --> You will drink (it's certain))
• te ke kai<p2><prn> ↔ te ke kai koe (You will eat --> You will eat (it's certain))

• tau ō! <p2><prn> ↔ tau ō kitautolu! (Let's go! --> Let's go! (What are we waiting for?))

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns are similar to cardinal pronouns in their delineation, but must be broken down even further into alienable versus inalienable pronouns, definite versus indefinite pronouns, and ordinary versus emotional pronouns (emphatics is also a category, but is rarely used).

Alienable vs Inalienable Pronouns

Tongan specifies two distinct types of possession in its grammar: inalienable possession and alienable possession. Inalienable pronouns are possessive pronouns in which a noun is obligatorily possessed by its possessor . Contrastingly, alienable possessive pronouns are that describe tangible nouns that the possessor may cease to own at a certain point. .

This possessive pronoun chart is from the Tongan Language Wikipedia page.

Possessive pronouns	definite or not	type	singular		dual		plural
			alienable2,5	inalienable2,5	alienable2,5	inalienable2,5	alienable2,5	inalienable2,5
1st person (exclusive) (my, our)	definite	ordinary	heʻeku1	hoku	heʻema1	homa	heʻemau1	homau
	indefinite		haʻaku	haku	haʻama	hama	haʻamau	hamau
	definite	emotional	siʻeku	siʻoku	siʻema	siʻoma	siʻemau	siʻomau
	indefinite		siʻaku	siʻaku	siʻama	siʻama	siʻamau	siʻamau
	emphatic3		haʻaku	hoʻoku	haʻamaua	hoʻomaua	haʻamautolu	hoʻomautolu
1st person (inclusive)4 (my, our)	definite	ordinary	heʻete1	hoto	heʻeta1	hota	heʻetau1	hotau
	indefinite		haʻate	hato	haʻata	hata	haʻatau	hatau
	definite	emotional	siʻete	siʻoto	siʻeta	siʻota	siʻetau	siʻotau
	indefinite		siʻate	siʻato	siʻata	siʻata	siʻatau	siʻatau
	emphatic3		haʻata	hoʻota	haʻataua	hoʻotaua	haʻatautolu	hoʻotautolu
2nd person (your)	definite	ordinary	hoʻo	ho	hoʻomo	homo	hoʻomou	homou
	indefinite		haʻo	hao	haʻamo	hamo	haʻamou	hamou
	definite	emotional	siʻo	siʻo	siʻomo	siʻomo	siʻomou	siʻomou
	indefinite		siʻao	siʻao	siʻamo	siʻamo	siʻamou	siʻamou
	emphatic3		haʻau	hoʻou	haʻamoua	hoʻomoua	haʻamoutolu	hoʻomoutolu
3rd person (his, her, its, their)	definite	ordinary	heʻene1	hono	heʻena1	hona	heʻenau1	honau
	indefinite		haʻane	hano	haʻana	hana	haʻanau	hanau
	definite	emotional	siʻene	siʻono	siʻena	siʻona	siʻenau	siʻonau
	indefinite		siʻane	siʻano	siʻana	siʻana	siʻanau	siʻanau
	emphatic3		haʻana	hoʻona	haʻanaua	hoʻonaua	haʻanautolu	hoʻonautolu

Example Phrases

• haku toko (cow->my cow)
• siʻaku toko (cow->my cherished cow)
• hama toko (cow->my two cows)

1st person exclusive

• haku<prn><poss><p1><sg><ordinary> ↔ haku (cow->my cow)
• siʻaku<prn><poss><p1><sg><emotional> ↔ siʻaku (cow->my cherished cow)
• hama<prn><poss><p1><du><ordinary> ↔ hama (cow->my two cows)
• siʻama<prn><poss><p1><du><emotional> ↔ siʻama (cow->my cherished two cows)
• hamau<prn><poss><p1><pl><ordinary> ↔ hamau (cow->my cows)
• siʻamau<prn><poss><p1><pl><emotional> ↔ siʻamau (cow->my cherished cows)

2nd person

• hao<prn><poss><p2><sg><ordinary> ↔ hao (your)
• siʻao<prn><poss><p2><sg><emotional> ↔ siʻao (your cherished)
• hamo<prn><poss><p2><du><ordinary> ↔ hamo (your two )
• siʻamo<prn><poss><p2><du><emotional> ↔ siʻamo (your cherished two )
• hamou<prn><poss><p2><pl><ordinary> ↔ hamou (your)
• siʻamou<prn><poss><p2><pl><emotional> ↔ siʻamou (your cherished)

3rd person

• hano<prn><poss><p3><sg><ordinary> ↔ hano (cow->their cow)
• siʻano<prn><poss><p3><sg><emotional> ↔ siʻano (cow->their cherished cow)
• hana<prn><poss><p3><du><ordinary> ↔ hana (cow->their two cows)
• siʻana<prn><poss><p3><du><emotional> ↔ siʻana (cow->their cherished two cows)
• hanau<prn><poss><p3><pl><ordinary> ↔ hanau (cow->their cows)
• siʻanau<prn><poss><p3><pl><emotional> ↔ siʻanau (cow->their cherished cows)

Verbs

There are three tenses in the Tongan language: past, present, and future. Conjugating verbs in Tongan does not require changing the verb. Instead, verbs tenses are denoted by tense markers that immediately precede the word. Most verbs in Tongan can also function as nouns without morphological change.

Tense

Verb Tense Markers

Past	naʻa
Present	ʻoku
Future	te

Regular Verbs w/ no tense markers

• kai<v> ↔ kai
• inu<v> ↔ inu
• ako<v> ↔ ako
• ʻalu<v> ↔ ʻalu
• mohe<v> ↔ mohe
• aʻhu<v> ↔ aʻhu

Past Tense

The past tense is denoted by the past tense marker naʻa, but only when used with the subject pronoun. naʻa always immediately precedes the subject pronoun

ku is the 1st person singular subject pronoun used in the past tense, while ke is the 2nd person singular pronoun. The 1st person singular subject pronoun ku is only used in the past tense. Both pronouns precede the verb (preposed pronouns).

Past tense marker examples

• kai<v><past> ↔ naʻa kai (eat --> ate)
• inu<v><past> ↔ naʻa inu (drink --> drank)
• ako<v><past> ↔ naʻa ako (study --> studied)

Past tense marker examples with pronouns

• ku kai<v><past><p1><sg> ↔ naʻa ku kai (i eat --> i ate)
• ke kai<v><past><p2><sg> ↔ naʻa ke kai (you eat --> you ate)

• ku inu<v><past><p1><sg> ↔ naʻa ku inu (i drink --> i drank)
• ke inu<v><past><p2><sg> ↔ naʻa ke inu (you drink --> you drank)

• ku ako<v><past><p1><sg> ↔ naʻa ku ako (i study --> i studied)
• ke ako<v><past><p2><sg> ↔ naʻa ke ako (you study --> you studied)

Future Tense

Future tense marker examples

• kai<v><fti> ↔ te kai (eat --> will eat)
• inu<v><fti> ↔ te inu (drink --> will drink)
• ako<v><fti> ↔ te ako (study --> will study)

Future tense marker examples with pronouns

• kai<v><fti><p1><sg> ↔ te u kai (eat --> i will eat)
• inu<v><fti><p1><sg> ↔ te u inu (drink --> i will drink)
• ako<v><fti><p1><sg> ↔ te u ako (study --> i will study)
• nofo<v><fti><p1><sg> ↔ te u nofo (stay --> i will stay)

Present Tense

Present tense marker examples

• kai<v><fti> ↔ ʻoku kai (eat --> eat)
• inu<v><fti> ↔ ʻoku inu (drink --> drink)
• ako<v><fti> ↔ ʻoku ako (study --> study)

Present tense marker examples with pronouns

• kai<v><pres><p1><sg><prn> ↔ ʻoku ou kai (eat --> i eat)
• inu<v><pres><p1><sg><prn> ↔ ʻoku ou inu (drink --> i drink)
• ako<v><pres><p1><sg><prn> ↔ ʻoku ou ako (study --> i study)
• {{morphTest|nofo<v><pres><p1><sg><prn>|ʻoku ou nofo} (stay --> i stay)

Imperatives

All verbs can be used in the imperative form without any morphological changes to the verb. Furthermore, no markers are needed, the verb is kept in its original form.

«ʻalu» is the verb 'go'.

• ʻalu<v><imp> ↔ ʻalu

«mohe» is the verb 'sleep'.

• mohe<v><imp> ↔ mohe

«aʻhu» is the verb 'come'.

• aʻhu<v><imp> ↔ aʻhu

All plural imperatives are immediately preceded by the plural subject pronoun mou.

«mou ʻalu» is the verb 'go (all of you)'.

• ʻalu<v><imp><pl> ↔ mou ʻalu

«mou mohe» is the verb 'sleep (all of you)'.

• mohe<v><imp><pl> ↔ mou mohe

«mou aʻhu» is the verb 'come (all of you)'.

• aʻhu<v><imp><pl> ↔ mou aʻhu

Adjectives

Time Modifiers

• ʻanai<adj> ↔ ʻanai (shortly)
• ʻapo<adj> ↔ ʻapo (tonight)
• ʻapongipongi<adj> ↔ ʻapongipongi (tomorrow)

• kotoa<adj> ↔ kotoa (all)

Articles

Tongan has definite and indefinite articles - three different types in total. The Tongan definite article is equivalent to the English the, and the indefinite article is equivalent to the English a, an, & some:

definite with a shift change in the following noun.

• e<adj><def> ↔ e (more common form)
• e<adj><def> ↔ he (used after ‘e, ki, mei, ‘i)

semidefinite

• e<adj><sdef> ↔ e (more common form)
• e<adj><sdef> ↔ he (used after ‘e, ki, mei, ‘i)

indefinite

• e<adj><ind> ↔ ha

Definite (h)e. note: When a noun is preceded by a definite article, the stress of that noun always falls on the ultimate syllable.

• pālangi<n><adj><def> ↔ e pālangí (white person -> the (one specific) white person).

Semi-definite (h)e. 'he' is used immediately after ‘e, ki, mei, ‘i, in all other cases 'e' is used.

• pālangi<n><adj><def> ↔ e pālangi (white person -> the white person).

• Indefinite ha.
• pālangi<n><adj><ind> ↔ ha pālangi (white person -> a white person).

Reduplication

Reduplication in Tongan is present, and is often used to exaggerate or emphasize an adjective or verb. However, there are certain reduplications that work to minimize the intensity of the adjective or verb.

Reduplications that emphasize

• kehe<adj><emph> ↔ kehekehe (different -> very different).
• luo<n><emph> ↔ luoluo (hole -> many holes).
• kofu<n><emph> ↔ kofukofu (garment -> bundle).
• mohe<v><emph> ↔ mohemohe (to sleep -> to sleep a lot).

Reduplications that de-emphasize

• māfana<adj><emph> ↔ mamāfana (warm -> luke warm).
• momoko<adj><emph> ↔ mokomoko (cold -> cool).

Not all reduplication in Tongan is full reduplication, partial reduplication exists as well. The example I've found don't seem to follow a regular pattern.

Partial Reduplication

• māfana<adj><emph> ↔ mamāfana (warm -> luke warm).
• pakiua<v><emph> ↔ pakipaki (to break in two -> to break into many pieces).
• momoko<adj><emph> ↔ mokomoko (cold -> cool).
• kotoa<adj><emph> ↔ katokatoa (all -> absolutely all).

Affixes

Listed below are a few common affixes in Tongan.

The suffix «-ngataʻa» means hard to, impossible and is affixed to any verb

• ʻalu<v><postadv> ↔ ʻalungataʻa (to get ->hard to get).
• kai<v><postadv> ↔ kaingataʻa (to eat ->hard to eat).
• fai<v><postadv> ↔ faingataʻa (to do ->hard to do).

The prefix «-a» is used to make certain verbs and nouns into adjectives.

Nouns + «-a»

• efu<n><az> ↔ efua (dust->dusty).
• ongoongo<n><az> ↔ ongoongoa (fame ->famous).
• namu<n><az> ↔ namua (mosquito->mosquitoey).
• mamate<n><az> ↔ mamatea (paralyzed->paralysis).

Verbs + «-a»

• lango<v><az> ↔ langoa (fly->flies).

References